Gabriela Reifová
Fakulta tropického zemědělství ČZU v Praze, Kamýcká 129, 165 21 Praha-Suchdol
Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, CULS Prague, Czech Rep.
Gabriela@reifova.cz
Pohřbívání v židovské kultuře jako souhrn sociálně-náboženských funkcí a jejich proměna v čase
Author: Gabriela Reifová
Language: Czech
Issue: 2/2015
Page Range: 49-70
No. of Pages: 22
Keywords: Jews; burying; Chevra kadisha; renewal; cemeteries; function
Summary/Abstract: This paper focuses on the social and religious functions of burial and bereavement in Jewish culture. Its goal is to study hidden ritual functions and make sense of this rite. The methods used for this research were based on the anthropological theory enshrined in Malinowski’s functionalism. A survey was therefore conducted of Sacred Society Chevra kadisha activities existing within Jewish communities worldwide, whose status has been deemed extremely important. The paper mainly focuses on the Sacred Society in Prague and its development over time. The work explores rituals connected with death and the period of mourning that follows a funeral. It also presents evidence of members of the Jewish community in Prague observing the habits connected with burial. Finally, the thesis reveals the hidden functions of the ritual in relation to Malinowski’s theory of functionalism.
Introduction
The statement you are dust and to dust you shall return, a statement uttered by the Lord before He drove Adam out of the Garden of Eden, is placed on the gate of the new Jewish cemetery in Prague. It is a reminder of Judaism’s specific view of human life and death. It’s such a strange combination, and even at these funerals you can see it a lot, that it’s a mix of things, of making it reverent, making it touching and not too jarring, making it addressable, but not something that one can take badly towards oneself (Chaim Kočí).
This article focuses on burial in Jewish culture as a set of socio-religious functions. It seeks to discover the hidden functions and meaning of the ritual of burial on the basis of the functionalist theory of B. Malinowski, which is outlined in the first chapters. It also focuses in particular on the Chevra Kaddisha funeral fraternity, which functions within Jewish communities around the world and has played a significant role in the ritual of burial for many centuries. In particular, the focus is on the workings of this fraternity and its transformation over time. The following chapters focus on the rituals associated with death and the period of mourning after burial. It concludes by summarizing the testimonies of members of the Jewish community in Prague regarding the observance of customs associated with burial, and the hidden functions of the burial ritual are revealed. This article is based on a thesis.
Figure 1. You are dust and to dust you shall return (own photo).
Methodology
The form of qualitative research was chosen for data collection, which, unlike quantitative research, does not use statistical data, but the processor evaluates only the information obtained from a limited number of respondents. A semi-standardized interview method, namely the guided interview, was used to interview the respondents. Two contemporary rabbinical authorities were the important respondents: the Chief Rabbi of the Jewish Community of Prague, Efraim Karol Sidon, and the second Rabbi of Prague, David Peter. Another very important person for gathering information was the chairman of the Chevra Kadisha funeral fraternity in Prague, Mr. Chaim Kochi. The above three interviews served mainly to clarify and expand the theoretical material obtained from the literature in the context of the contemporary Czech environment and were also recorded. The following six interviews were conducted with ordinary members of the Prague Jewish community, whose names will not be mentioned to ensure anonymity. The interviewees ranged in age from 50 to 85 (first and second generation Jews)[1], 3 of whom were women and 3 of whom were men. These interviews served to verify the observance of Jewish burial traditions by members of the Jewish community. For some of the interviewees, members of the community, at certain points the interview began to resemble more of a narrative interview, with the subject speaking quite freely on a particular topic.
During the course of conducting the above interviews, no obstacles arose that would have complicated the research or possibly prevented it altogether. Both the informants from the municipality and the other respondents were willing to talk about the issue.
The research included participation in the traditional Jewish funeral of one of the members of the Jewish community in Prague, which took place on 23 January 2014 at the cemetery in Olšany. It was conducted by Rabbi Karol Sidon, a Prague rabbi.
Practical section
Literary sources and data obtained on the basis of field research are linked in this part of the thesis so that they are logically connected and the practical part does not need to unnecessarily recapitulate the facts found from the literary sources. Attention is first given to the functionalist theory of Bronislaw Malinowski, whose methods were used for the research investigation. In the following chapters, the thesis maps the activities of the funeral fraternity and focuses on the rituals associated with death. It also highlights the degree of observance of Jewish traditions concerning burial by today’s members of the Jewish community in Prague. Finally, it reveals the hidden functions of the burial ritual.
Functionalist anthropology according to B. Malinowski
Bronislaw Kasper Malinowski, a representative of anthropological functionalism, used the example of the kula barter trade in the Western Pacific to show that when examining a cultural phenomenon, we must not forget that the various cultural elements of a given culture are interrelated. In doing research, it is necessary to penetrate beneath the surface of the thing under study. At first glance, the obvious functions of a ritual may conceal other, not so obvious, functions. Functionalist methods inquire into the hidden meaning and purpose of particular rituals.[2]
These methods were also applied to the issue of burial. Burial in any culture or within any religion is specified by a number of ritual acts in which we can clearly trace various specific differences or similarities. Thus, perceiving the care of the sick, death and the subsequent rites associated with burial allows a deeper insight into the inner life of the Jewish entity and helps us to understand them, to find their meaning and hidden meanings.
Belief in the immortality of the soul
One of the dogmas of Judaism is the immortality and eternity of the soul.[3] According to Jews, the soul is responsible for human sins and will be punished for them in the afterlife. Related to the belief in the immortality of the soul is the belief in an afterlife, which is also based on the belief in the coming of a future age that will occur after the resurrection.[4]
Life, illness, death
Every life ends in death, which is the definitive death for human beings in all cultural and religious environments. The care of the sick, the dying and the acts of burial are accompanied by a series of immutable rituals.
In the case of the Jewish ethnic group with the oldest monotheistic cultural-religious tradition, this issue can be very well demonstrated. We can also see whether the religiosity that has dominantly shaped most of these rituals in the past and given them meaningful content, with the increasing secularization of our lives, is making these rituals empty ornaments.
No one can claim a life. It is not a lightly given consideration. It is a duty, a task, a mission. This is why Judaism is so health-conscious. If a person is ill, it is his duty to strive for an early recovery. Life should not be abused or neglected. Life is our opportunity, which everyone should take as best he can.[5]
Visiting the sick is a great mitzvah in a Jew’s social life.[6] If the illness persists for a long time, the people gather in the synagogue and search the Torah for a new name for the sick person. This name is usually chosen after a biblical person who led a good life. Then, during the service, it is declared that the person’s name will be symbolically changed so that the sick person becomes imaginatively someone else. The sick person will only learn of his or her new name if he or she is fully healed. He may retain this name and be addressed by both his existing name and the new name without the knowledge of the registry office. However, if the illness does not subside, the family will not be left alone with the dying person. The holy society of Chevra Kaddisha will assist in preparing the last journey of the dying person. These services are rendered out of love for one’s fellow man, and therefore the Chevra Kadisha does not demand any wages for these services.[7] The Jewish name, whether consciously or unconsciously, affects the person who bears it. There is a story behind the Jewish name, and so the bearer is connected to the person in question from Jewish history who bore the same name.[8]
The Talmud[9] says, you change the name, you change the destiny. So if someone is healed, or we want to heal him, we change his name, he is called by another name, which is then added, after the successful healing, to his existing name. (Chaim Kočí)
The traditional practice of changing names has therefore been maintained to this day. Names are sought to symbolize the prolongation of life. For example, for men the name Alter – old, for women the name Sarah, who lived very long and gave birth at an old age, and Chaya – alive, are very often added. For men, Chaim – life, prolongation of life, etc. is also very often added.[10],[11]
Life is a day between two nights. (…) Death is the night between two days – the day of life on earth and the day of eternal life in the world to come.[12]
In Judaism, death is not an absolute end; it is a part of human life, a transition into another form. Death is therefore a kind of rite of passage, a so-called critical moment when man changes his way of being. Nevertheless, death is understood as something negative. Life is sacred to Jews. Death means abandoning one’s fellow human beings; death relieves one of the obligation to serve God, which from a rabbinic point of view is the reason for joy and the meaning of human existence.[13]
People must not abandon a person who is already close to death. It is a mitzvah to stand by her when her soul is passing away. At this point, those present say one of the most important Jewish prayers, the Shema Yisrael.[14] In order to ascertain whether the end has indeed come, those present place down feathers near the nostrils of the deceased for 8 to 10 minutes. The body of the deceased is allowed to rest for 15 minutes. The eyes of the deceased are then pressed shut and the name of the Lord Shaddai is marked on the upper limbs. After another 15 minutes, the body is placed on the ground with the feet facing the door, the mouth is covered with a shawl, the toes are tied with thread and the whole body is covered with a sheet. A candle or oil lamp is placed at the head of the deceased to signify the solemnity of the soul leaving the body.
According to Judaism, one does not have the right to end one’s life by choice. Life is sacred and is dedicated to God, which is why euthanasia and suicide are strictly rejected by Judaism.[15] Judaism is equally opposed to the dissection of the human body. The human body of the deceased is not considered a carcass, and its remains are precious to Jews, so it is unthinkable not to care for the deceased body and leave it neglected.[16]
Chevra kadisha and its transformation over time
Burial plays a very important role in the Jewish world in general. In terms of ritual practice, there are two basic prescriptions for the Jewish people. The first is to establish a place where Torah is studied, hence where people will pray. The second is to establish a place where one will bury. To take care of the dead is therefore a very important matter. Jewish law stands that every person is obligated to immediately stop all activity and begin making preparations to bury a person, therefore this ritual stands on a much higher level than other rituals such as a wedding, etc. bar micva[17] One is to say the Creed twice during the day. If a situation arises where a wedding or other ceremonies are taking place during the time of prayer, one cannot interrupt or violate this ritual practice, whereas one can violate this practice during the time of preparation of the deceased. The preparation of the deceased is superior to all ritual activities.[18]
There is a command in the Torah that says we are obligated to bury a person. A person who does not do this dishonors God, because he dishonors God’s command. (David Peter)
Jewish rituals are generally concerned with a particular person and his ceremonies, whereas in rituals associated with burial, society plays a major role.[19]
Caring for the sick and preparing for a funeral are among the most serious matters in Jewish life. The service rendered to the deceased is irreversible; the deceased can no longer repay such services. It is service that is associated with truth – it is true service. (Karol Sidon)
The creation of the Chevra Kaddisha and its role. The roots of Chevra Kaddisha-type charitable activities must be sought in Spain and the Sephardic communities, since it was in that country that the growth of Christian charities was already noticeable in the 13th century. However, there are only records of the Chevra Kadisha itself from the 16th century onwards. The expulsion of the Jews from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492 was a major milestone, and thus became a major impetus for the development of Jewish charities. Thanks to this „Spanish influence“, the idea of Jewish charities spread further to southern and central Europe.[20] The oldest group was the Burial Brotherhood in Prague, whose statutes from 1564 were approved by the then Chief Rabbi of Prague Rabi Löw.[21]
This group is responsible for the preparation of funerals and funeral ceremonies, social activities of a charitable nature, care for the bereaved and collection of alms for the socially disadvantaged. Chevra Kaddisha is the epitome of the purest form of charity, primarily because it does not expect words of thanks for its services.[22]
Interruption of activities due to World War II. Chevra kadisha functioned continuously in most Jewish communities in Bohemia, Moravia and Slovakia until 1939. The Second World War brought many casualties, and among them, of course, were many of the members of the burial fraternity. The Chevra Kaddisha was not restored after the war and the Jewish community in Prague therefore established a department, under the so-called cult department, which was connected with the social department, and in this way the care of the sick, the needy, the dead, etc. was provided on the most practical basis. The people who carried out this activity were mainly employees of the Jewish community – volunteers.[23]
Renewal of the Chevra Kaddisha. The first attempts to rebuild the Prague Chevra Kaddisha were made in 2001 and 2003. In 2007, the Chevra Kaddisha really came to life and began to function. The main force behind its revival was Mrs. Zuzana Peterova, mother of Rabbi David Peter of Prague, and the current chairman of the Chevra Kadisha, Mr. Chaim Kočí.
The current Chevra Kadisha seeks to continue the previous traditions to the widest (original) extent, that is: caring for the sick, the needy and social activities, where the greatest connection is with the social care home, Hagibor; helping to organize events such as circumcisions and weddings; caring for the dead; and last but not least, trying to educate especially the members of the Prague Jewish community so that they know why the traditional burial is ideal and what the grave entails.[24]
Membership in the association. The Chevra Kadisha enjoyed due respect and recognition within the voluntary institutions of the Jewish community. For this reason, too, the representatives of this fraternity were carefully selected. Membership was contingent upon the level of education, degree of piety and respectability within this religious group.[25]
The organizational structure of the Chevra Kadisha is fixed. This is evidenced, for example, by the strict hierarchical structure, the emphasis on morality, adherence to the principles of the society, the regular annual banquets and the contributions of the members of the fraternity.[26] The members of the current Prague funeral fraternity are volunteers. After the re-establishment of this fraternity in 2007, all volunteers who expressed interest in the position were accepted into membership.[27]
Today’s Chevra Kaddisha is understandably unable to meet either its original statutes or religious standards. However, its activities are necessary. So it’s a matter of trying to grasp it as best we can, aware of its shortcomings. (Chaim Kočí)
The Chevra Kadisha now has 38 members, of which about one-third are active. They are people across the age spectrum, with an average age of about forty to fifty. In comparison, there are more women than men. This fact complicates the situation in terms of more physically demanding jobs, such as carrying coffins. The election of the board of directors is no longer by „balotage“[28] as it was before. Nowadays, it is standard practice to nominate candidates before the annual meeting, which is announced 30 days in advance, and then add them at the meeting.[29]
Charitable donations. Today, the Chevra Kadisha raises funds mainly through donations and membership fees.[30] Collecting donations is not as commonplace as it was in the past; the Chevra Kadisha no longer carries money boxes at funeral processions to collect these contributions.
However, if people are grateful for the services, they have the option of putting a certain amount of money into a box that is attached at the entrance to Olšany Cemetery. The following are the grants from which Chevra draws.[31]
Figure 2. Money box (own photo).
Rituály spojené se smrtí
The ritual inherent in death, which in the Jewish community provides Chevra Kaddisha, is burial. Before the actual burial, however, the deceased must be prepared for this act according to strict religious regulations, a process called tahara.
Figure 3. The building set up for tahara purposes at the Jewish cemetery in Olšany (own photo).
Tahara (body wash). Tahara, cleansing and washing the deceased is an important part of the preparation for the funeral itself. Two versions of the reasons for this ritual have been given: the ritual of tahara may be associated with the birth of a child, when its body is also washed, and therefore the body of the deceased should be done so as well, as it returns to God; conversely, the practice is sometimes derived from the kohanim[32] in the Temple, who always purified themselves thoroughly before the service.[33]
The dead man is to prepare himself as if he were going to a feast. He is to be washed, combed, his nails manicured and dressed. A person who grooms the deceased in this way proves that he believes in Jewish rules, that he believes that there really is a God, that God created the world. The person who does the burial should be on the highest spiritual level.[34]
Figure 4. Original tahara table (own photo).
Figure 5. New stainless steel table for tahara (own photo).
By uttering the word tahor/a, pure or clean, we signify that a person’s bodily shell is free from all sins. Not that we really believe that we have technically cleansed the person, but it is meant to prove to us that there is no point in continuing to put any kind of hold on that person. He’s dead. What’s left of him is dead, and to continue to extend the sort of controversy he had in life is pointless. (Chaim Kočí)
Everything that comes out of a person at the time of dying must go into the grave. Thus, if the deceased bleeds, for example, the blood must be buried in a special container with the deceased in the coffin. If the person died a violent death, it is necessary to bury him with the earth into which his blood was absorbed and the clothes in which he was killed. In this case there is no dressing in shrouds. Ritual practice holds that the murdered man must appear before the judgment of God with everything, even the garment, in order that the punishment of the guilty may be all the more compelling. Men and women alike have a bag of soil from Israel placed under their head in the coffin, so that at least the head rests in the soil of Israel.[35]
The road to the cemetery
The path to the cemetery should lead past the synagogue, where a short break will be taken. This gives the deceased a chance to say goodbye to a place that was very important in his life. The greatest show of respect for the deceased can be shown by others by taking part in the funeral procession. Everyone should leave work for a while and join the funeral procession.[36]
Funeral
The Chevra Kaddisha was always in charge of the funeral arrangements. Her other duty was to explain to the mourners how to behave in the situation.[37] The funeral had to be arranged within 24 hours of the death, and only in the daytime, with the exception of a funeral falling on the Sabbath day[38] and the holiday of Yom Kippur[39]. If the burial took place on other holidays, arrangements had to be made for the grave to be dug by non-Jews.[40]
Halacha[41] really requires that a person be buried on the same day they die. In Israel, this is how it is usually done. Outside of Israel it is almost never done that way for several reasons. For one thing, things have been complicated recently by the fact that the person no longer dies at home and the hospital discharge hours are fixed (min. 10 hrs.). The other thing is that often relatives find out about the situation and afterwards still have to drive or fly down from somewhere. (Chaim Kočí).
Figure 6. Ceremonial Hall of the New Jewish Cemetery in Prague (own photo).
The Chevra Kadisha, of course, tries to follow ritual practice, but not at all costs. A quick burial is recorded in the halacha out of respect for a person’s bodily shell, where as time passes it decays and becomes disrespected. Nowadays, however, these manifestations can be stopped by refrigeration, so burial within 24 hours is not absolutely necessary. Of course, every effort is made to arrange the funeral as soon as possible and as a rule it is the next day, within 72 hours always, with rare exceptions.[42]
No jewellery or valuables are to be placed in the grave. The deceased will only take with him what belongs to the body or what became part of his life, such as a wooden leg.[43] During the funeral ceremony, a eulogy should be given, with loved ones speaking of the good deeds and actions of the deceased.[44]
After the funeral. When the coffin is lowered into the grave, each person present throws three shovels of dirt on the coffin as a tribute to the deceased child of Israel. It may seem strange, but the dirt used to ritually sprinkle the coffin is imported to many countries around the world from the Holy Land of Israel.[45]
At the end of the funeral, the Kaddish prayer will be said. The origin of this prayer is unknown to us. However, the Kaddish is not a prayer in the true sense of the word; it is not a prayer for the repose of the soul of the deceased. It is an ode to the Lord, a praise of His name, a hymn in prose.[46] Kaddish had a special significance, especially because it concluded other prayers read from the Torah. It does not deal with death, but it glorifies God and expresses His omnipotence.[47]
After the funeral, people move into the ceremonial hall, but before that they wash their hands to prove that they had nothing to do with the death.[48] Expressions of sadness and helplessness should be corrected to some extent. It is natural that women tend to be more sensitive by nature and so tears are allowed to flow freely. However, excessive, heart-rending and painful expressions of grief should be avoided. Noise and expressions of lamentation must not disturb the peace of the deceased.[49]
Mourning and who has the duty to hold mourning
Mourning for the dead is called avelut. Persons who are obligated to observe halachot include[50] Persons who are obligated to observe the halachot of mourning include the father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister (even half-siblings) and spouse.[51] He who mourns before God is called onen. It is his duty to arrange for the burial of his relative and to do everything possible to prevent an autopsy.[52]
The mourning of the bereaved is divided into three to four periods: aninut, šiv´a a šlošim, for surviving orphans there are 12 months of mourning. A mourner is released from formal religious obligations and commitments for a period of time. It depends, however, on the particular mourning period. As the period progresses, however, the mourner must engage in ordinary life and the divine commandments gradually become valid for him again.
Aninut (mourning from death to burial). Aninut is the period of mourning from death to burial. Mourners are not allowed to eat meat or drink alcoholic beverages during this period, nor are they allowed to join friends for meals or participate in celebrations. They may not greet other people. They must forgo commonplace things such as cutting their hair, shaving, or slathering themselves with creams. He must also not do any work.[53] The mourner is relieved of the obligation to pray.[54]
Part of the observance of this mourning is the obligation of the bereaved to tear their clothing. They are allowed to change into other clothes they are not so sorry for before the funeral. Afterwards, they are instructed by the Chevra Kaddisha how and when to tear the garment in question, standing, in front, from the collar down (not to the sides). The methods of tearing the garment further vary according to the relationship of the deceased and the mourner. Thus, the tearing of the garment will differ, for example, between a widower or widow and grieving orphans.[55]
The ritual of tearing a garment is called kri´a. This way of expressing sorrow and pain appears in many passages in the Bible. Already in the first book of Moses, Genesis, we read of Ruben, who, upon discovering that Joseph was not in the cistern in which he had hidden him from his brothers, tore his clothes in despair and grief (Genesis 37:21-29). The tearing of the garment should be an instinctive expression of grief, not an act of reason.[56]
Šiv´a (a week of mourning after the funeral). Šiva is the Hebrew name for the numeral seven and also the designation of the week – the seven days of mourning, which are dedicated to regular morning and evening services. As a sign of their grief, mourners sit for these seven days either on the ground or on low stools; they are not allowed to leave the house, not even to attend the synagogue service.[57] There are many prohibitions for the mourners during the Shiv’a period in terms of dressing, contact and communication with other people, employment, hygiene and intimate life. Mourners are not allowed to wear leather shoes or sandals during this period, and this prohibition also applies to shoes that have only straps, soles or uppers made of leather, for example. Another restriction occurs when communicating. Mourners must not greet others or be greeted, and must not ask others how they are doing. Furthermore, he may not rejoice during this week, and since Torah study gives joy to the heart, he may therefore study only those passages in the Torah that relate to mourning. They may not wear new clothes or clothes freshly washed, nor may they do laundry or iron their clothes. However, if his clothes are dirty or sweaty, he may change them. The prohibitions also apply to hygiene, i.e. washing and bathing. He must not wash in hot water, he may wash off dirt, wash his face, hands and feet in cold water or wash himself if health reasons require it. However, he may not bathe for pleasure or in cold water. The mourner is not allowed to apply creams, oils or perfume, except for cleansing lotions to remove dirt, and is not allowed to cut his hair or shorten his beard by shaving. He may not cut his nails, but may separate them with his hands or bite them. Prohibitions also apply to intimate life, so the mourner is forbidden to have marital intercourse during the Shiv’a period. He is also forbidden to engage in gainful employment during this period. He is, however, allowed to do household chores such as cooking or cleaning. During the mourning week, all mirrors and pictures in the house must be covered so that the mourner cannot occupy himself. A candle should burn for the soul of the deceased for the entire week. On the seventh day of this week of mourning, after the morning service, „Shacharit,“ the participants in the „minyan“[58] gather in the house of the mourners and recite selected verses. This marks the end of the Shiv’a period.[59]
Shloshim (mourning from the eighth to the thirtieth day after the burial). The mourning week of „Shiv’a“ is over, but the mourning period, „avelut“, is still going on. After the end of „Shiv’ah“ comes „Shloshim“ (the Hebrew designation for the number thirty), another 23 days of mourning (with seven days of „Shiv’ah“ totaling a month – thirty days), where the following „halachot“ apply to the mourner.[60] There is still a ban on cutting hair, beards and nails. Mourners may only bathe if they want to wash off sweat or for health reasons. However, it is not customary to bathe for pleasure, even in cold water. Mourners may not participate in social events with music and dancing, such as weddings and other social events. However, they may already respond to greetings and ask others how they are doing. However, others may not ask him questions.[61]
Twelve months of mourning. The anniversary of a relative’s passing is commemorated every year. A male relative is always called upon to read from the Torah on the anniversary of the previous „Shabbat“. The son of the deceased should lead the „kaddish“ service on the anniversary of the death. It is also customary to visit the deceased in the cemetery on this day and read selected prayers.[62] The recitation of the Kaddish prayer by the children of deceased parents is an important ritual element of this period of mourning. For 11 months, this prayer is recited during the service. The Kaddish is understood as a prayer for forgiveness of the sins of the deceased, but reciting it for 12 months would imply that the children consider their parents to be great sinners.[63]
The anniversary of the death of his parents, „jarcajt“, is commemorated by his son for the rest of his life. Every year on this day, he recites the „kaddish“ and lights a candle to burn for 24 hours. In this way, the chains of generations are tightly bound together and their bonds are ever strengthened.[64]
The laws of mourning on holidays. Certain Jewish holidays interrupt the mourning period of „shiv’a“ or „shloshim“, „Yom Kippur“, „Pesach“[65], Šavuot[66], Sukot[67], Roš ha-šana[68] – when one of these holidays begins, the period of mourning for the mourner ends.[69]
Jewish cemeteries
The cemetery is a sacred place. In the past, the establishment of cemeteries often faced various administrative obstacles, both in terms of acquiring land for its location or expansion and financial obstacles. Rural municipal cemeteries were thus established in hard-to-reach places. In cramped ghettos, burials had to be made in several layers due to lack of space. When another new layer of soil was added, the existing tombstones were always raised to a new level.[70] An example of the layering of graves can be seen in the old Prague Jewish cemetery, where, despite several expansions, its capacity was insufficient and so in some places it was layered up to twelve times.[71]
The cemetery includes a mortuary, where the „tahara“ (washing of the dead) is performed, and a ceremonial hall. The entire complex is surrounded by a wall. A ‚lavabo‘ – a basin used for ritual washing of visitors‘ hands – is usually placed at the entrance.[72]
Figure 7. Old Jewish cemetery in Prague (own photo).
Tombstones (maceva). The tombstone is erected 11 months after the death of the deceased.[73] Throughout this time, the orphans recite the Kaddish prayer. Only after this period is the „matzah“ to be erected. If, however, it is made earlier and erected earlier, it is proper to cover it so that on the „jarcajt/yartzeit“ – the anniversary of the death, the „veil-taking“ can be done, when the naked truth about the dead person is symbolically revealed. After a person’s death, his soul is still there. Unless the person is sinful, his soul can stay in this world for a maximum of 12 months.[74]
Jewish tombstones usually contain both the name of the deceased and the Hebrew name of his father. The tombstone is usually engraved with the initial letters of the Hebrew quote „tanceva“: Tihje nišmato ceria bi-cror ha-chajim or May his soul be united in union with life.[75] In the Diaspora, both the Hebrew and the civil name of the deceased and his date of birth are usually inscribed on the grave. The inscription on the tombstone may be supplemented by various symbols and decorations expressing membership in an Israelite clan or tribe (e.g., the blessing hands symbolize membership in the priestly clan of the Kohen, the kettle symbolizes the tribe of Levi, whose members, as priestly office-bearers, poured water on the priests‘ hands with the kettle during services, the tribe of Judah has a lion in its emblem and other symbols expressing professions, etc.).[76]
Figure 8. Symbol of the Kohen family (own photo).
Figure 9. Symbol of the Levitical family (own photo).
Flowers. Flowers do not belong in a Jewish cemetery. However, this rule doesn’t quite work. Survivors who are not religious sometimes do so, and flowers are also brought by survivors who are often not Jewish.
Unfortunately, they bring not only flowers to the grave, but also trees, twisted willow branches, etc. (Chaim Kočí)
No flowers are worn to a funeral. This custom stems from history, when growing flowers was not possible in the ghettos, the ghettos were cramped and there was not enough space for growing flowers. Buying flowers was also not possible because no one would sell flowers to Jews. Jews were not allowed to own land, so it was impossible to grow flowers outside the city. The practice of loading graves with stones originated in the desert as a defence against wild animals and was subsequently carried out in the ghettos.[77]
Cremation
The cremation of remains in Judaism is strictly forbidden by „halacha“ and is considered one of the greatest abuses of the faith. Jews believe that a person who is buried in the traditional manner is prepared for the resurrection and the coming of the Messiah savior. However, Jews in Prague during the First Republic were very liberal, and between 1945 and 1948, interest in cremation grew to such an extent that an urn section was established in the Jewish cemetery in Olšany, Prague.
It should be noted that cremation is preferred mainly by Holocaust survivors, while their family members perished during World War II. These people see cremation as a kind of remembrance. Their usual statement is: „I wish I had been with them, like them, the whole family was cremated, I want to be too“. „Am I better than my mummy or daddy? No, I’ll go the same way“. This position is quite understandable.
[78] Cremation is also very often preferred by atheists and people who were never brought up in the Jewish tradition. Often they only found out that they were Jewish when they were adults.[79] As already mentioned, in recent centuries there has been a significant assimilation of Jews in the Czech environment and, in connection with this, an increase in the number of mixed marriages, or families. The burial of partners in separate cemeteries posed considerable problems, as the partners were understandably unwilling to accept the idea that they should each be buried in a different place. For this reason, Rabbi Karol Sidon made a decision after 1991 that allowed for the burial of non-Jewish partners in a Jewish cemetery. However, only cremated remains could be buried.[80]
Awareness of the members of the Jewish community in Prague about the observance of the burial traditions
Based on qualitative research, facts were found regarding the level of awareness of members of the Jewish community in Prague about rituals associated with burial. Their experiences regarding traditional Jewish burial as well as their personal preferences regarding the observance of Jewish burial traditions were mapped.
The majority of community members interviewed, both first and second generation, did not grow up in the Jewish tradition. The families had assimilated. The topic of Judaism was taboo in most families, as the interviewees or their parents wanted to forget the horrors of the war. The respondents‘ knowledge is limited to the activities of the funeral fraternity, the tahar and the course of a traditional funeral.
Only one of the respondents had his parents buried in the traditional way, while the others chose burial by burning, or cremation, for their close relatives, parents or partners (in one case burial in the ground was chosen, but in a Christian cemetery). The wishes of the deceased family members played a major role in the decision. The reason for the choice of traditional burial for one respondent was the grave in the Jewish cemeteries owned by his family. Ironically, this respondent is not religious and does not identify much with this belief. Fewer respondents are familiar with the ritual ceremonies associated with the period of mourning, although this period is an important ceremony that helps a person to return to normal life among others. The strict prohibitions and restrictions associated with this period were not observed by any respondent.
As for the actual funeral, none of the respondents adhered to the traditional funeral. They want to leave this decision to their children or partners. Two respondents wish to be cremated and placed in the urn section with their families. Many of the respondents did not grow up in religious families, yet Judaism means a lot to them. In particular, their pride in the Jewish people, which has produced many artists and inventors who have enriched the world, comes through in their statements. Most of the interviewees feel more comfortable in Jewish than in non-Jewish society, and a sense of immediacy and belonging plays a large role here.
The Hidden Functions of a Jewish Funeral
The final farewell to the deceased, the paying of respect, the consolation of the bereaved may appear as an essential function of the ritual of burial. In the Jewish world, these human expressions are certainly also inherently linked to burial, but research has uncovered facts that suggest that the core function of the burial ritual is quite different.
Preparation for the coming of the Messiah. The primary function of the burial ritual is not to say goodbye to the dead, as it might seem at first glance, but to prepare the deceased for the coming of the Savior, the Messiah, who will rule the Jewish people during the new age. It is a preparation for the resurrection that the Jews are carefully attending to. They have well-defined procedures that they follow meticulously, so that no mistakes are made and the deceased is actually given this opportunity.
Often before death people wonder what if this were true, what if there really was a next world. Even though they didn’t believe it all their life, they decide at the end of their life that they don’t want their life to end the way science tells us it does. They want to believe that there is some kind of overlap and they want to take whatever steps they can to get to that overlap.[81]
Strengthening cohesion. In general, all Jewish traditions contribute to the cohesion of the Jewish community. Tradition is the glue that holds the Jewish people together despite all the oppression and pogroms they have gone through throughout history and the fact that they have never had a state of their own. Perhaps even living under eternal oppression contributed to the strong Jewish cohesion that is still evident today.
Even hostile parties come together for a few moments during the funeral and forget their differences. (David Peter)
Many of the funeral rituals involve the bereaved and other members of the Jewish community. Their observance over many centuries has thus helped to maintain cohesion in this broader community. The funeral procession is already the first indicator of this togetherness. Every Jew should pay his respects to the deceased by leaving his work and joining the procession, not to mention the funeral itself, which is a mitzvah for Jews to attend. Members of the community, neighbors or acquaintances, express their acts of togetherness even as they carry comfort food to the bereaved who are in their homes and grieving.
In these more or less atheistic times, there is very little interest in traditional funerals in Bohemia. People often do not live in the Jewish tradition and do not know much about Judaism. But Jewish culture is strong and connects its members, believers and non-believers alike, with a certain abstract transcendent force. It happens that when people die, or their loved ones die, they have a need to know where they belong, they have a need for a certain belonging. At the end of their lives, they therefore opt for a traditional Jewish funeral, even though they have not observed Jewish customs all their lives. They become aware of their Jewish identity within themselves, which has been repressed all their lives, and they eventually identify with it, at least in part.
Conclusion
This work succeeded in mapping the traditions and rituals of the Prague Jewish community. The assumption that hidden functions related to the Jewish burial ritual exist was confirmed. The primary function is not to say goodbye to the dead, as it might seem, but to prepare the deceased for the coming of the savior, the Messiah, who will rule the Jewish people during the new „golden“ age of world history. The preparation of the deceased „tahar“ must therefore be meticulous, perfect, and Jews pay the utmost attention to this procedure so as not to deny the deceased the chance of resurrection.
Like any tradition, the rituals associated with burial contribute to the cohesion of the Jewish community. Whereas in the past, the community naturally, actively participated in all rituals, today in Prague, especially as a result of assimilation, expressions of cohesion are limited to participation in the funeral itself.
[1] First-generation Jews are Jews who were the direct targets of Nazi extermination policies during World War II; second-generation Jews are their descendants.
[2] WHITE, E. Bronislaw Malinowski: Identifying the Kula Ring of the Trobriand Islanders. Center for Spatially Integrated Social Science [online]. [cit. 2014-01-02]. http://www.csiss.org/classics/content/98>.
[3] In Kabbalah (a type of Jewish mysticism) there is a belief in the transmigration of souls, or even their extinction. However, these teachings are completely alien to Orthodox Judaism (Převtělování duší v kabale, 2004).
[4] POJAR, M. Izrael. 2. Libri, 2009, p. 118-119
[5] VRIES, S. Židovské obřady a symboly. Praha: Vyšehrad, 2009, p. 234-235.
[6] Micva – a religious precept or commandment, sometimes also a designation for a good deed (NEWMAN, 2009, p. 115)
[7] VRIES, S. Židovské obřady a symboly. Praha: Vyšehrad, 2009, p. 236-243.
[8] Interview with D. Peter, Praha, 21. 1. 2014.
[9] Talmud – the authoritative body of Jewish law and tradition (NEWMAN, 2009, p. 221)
[10] According to Jewish law, a person can change his name whenever he wants. The only situation in which this name will really be used is if the community calls it that for 30 days (interview with D. Peter, Prague, 21 January 2014).
[11] Interview with Ch. Kočí, Praha, 22. 1. 2014
[12] LAMM, By Maurice. The Jewish way in death and mourning. [Rev. ed.]. New York: J. David, 1972, p. 1
[13] ONDRAČKA, L. Smrt a umírání v náboženských tradicích současnosti. V Praze: Cesta domů. 2010, p. 83-84
[14] GREENWALD, Z. Ša’arej halacha: brány halachy. Praha: Agadah, 1. vyd.2012, p. 425.
[15] NOSEK, B. Židovské tradice a zvyky. V Praze: Karolinum, 2010, p. 137; ONDRAČKA, L. Smrt a umírání v náboženských tradicích současnosti. V Praze: Cesta domů. 2010, p. 84.
[16] VRIES, S. Židovské obřady a symboly. Praha: Vyšehrad, 2009, p. 274.
[17] Bar micva – a ceremony in which a boy becomes a man, on the first occasion after his 13th birthday he is called upon to read the Torah in the Synagogue for the first time (NEWMAN, 2009, p. 20).
[18] Interview with Ch. Kočí, Praha, 22. 1. 2014
[19] Interview with D. Peter, Praha, 21. 1. 2014
[20] NOSEK, B. Židovské tradice a zvyky. V Praze: Karolinum, 2010, p. 132
[21] STEINOVÁ, I. Bejt Olam: Pohřbívání v židovské tradici. Maskil. 2005, str. 8
[22] DOLEŽELOVÁ, J. Úcta k živým i k mrtvým: židovské zvyky a instituce při pohřbívání. Židovská ročenka – na rok 5751. 1990-1991, p. 65-67.
[23] Interview with D. Peter, Praha 21. 1. 2014; Ch. KOČÍM, Praha, 22. 1. 2014
[24] Ibidem.
[25] DOLEŽELOVÁ, J. Úcta k živým i k mrtvým: židovské zvyky a instituce při pohřbívání. Židovská ročenka – na rok 5751. 1990-1991, p. 65
[26] MARCUS, J. The Triesch Hebra Kaddisha, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, 1946, str.173.
[27] Interview with Ch. Kočí, Praha, 22. 1. 2014
[28] Balotage – a voting system for the Board of Directors using a system of two ballot boxes filled with white, black and one yellow ball (NOSEK, 2009, p. 135).
[29] Interview with Ch. Kočí, Praha, 22. 1. 2014.
[30] NOSEK, B. Židovské tradice a zvyky. V Praze: Karolinum, 2010, p. 133.
[31] Interview with Ch. Kočí, Praha, 22. 1. 2014.
[32] Kohanim – priests, members of the tribe of Levi, descendants of Aaron and his sons, whom the Lord commissioned to perform the priestly office (NEWMAN, 2009, p. 92).
[33] KOLATCH, A. The Jewish mourner’s book of why. Middle Village, N.Y.: J. David Publishers, 1993, p. 29-30
[34] Interview with D. Peter, Praha, 21. 1. 2014.
[35] Interview with Ch. Kočí, Praha, 22. 1. 2014.
[36] VRIES, S. Židovské obřady a symboly. Praha: Vyšehrad, 2009, p. 254-255
[37] GREENWALD, Z. Ša’arej halacha: brány halachy. Praha: Agadah, 1. vyd.2012, p. 428
[38] Šabat – Saturday, the day of rest (DIVECKÝ, 2005, p. 73).
[39] Jom kipur – Day of Atonement (DIVECKÝ, 2005, p. 40).
[40] NOSEK, B. Židovské tradice a zvyky. V Praze: Karolinum, 2010, p. 141
[41] Halacha – Jewish Law – a summary of Jewish law (NEWMAN, 2009, p. 42).
[42] Interview with Ch. Kočí, Praha, 22. 1. 2014.
[43] VRIES, S. Židovské obřady a symboly. Praha: Vyšehrad, 2009, p. 249.
[44] KLOTZ, M. Krankenbesuch und Trauergebräuche nach Bibel und Talmud. Prag: im Selbstverlag, 1900, p. 13.
[45] PUTÍK, A.. Židovské tradice a zvyky:svátky, synagoga a běh života. Židovské muzeum v Praze, 2005, p. 69; VRIES, S. Židovské obřady a symboly. Praha: Vyšehrad, 2009, p. 250.
[46] VRIES, S. Židovské obřady a symboly. Praha: Vyšehrad, 2009, p. 261.
[47] HAUMANN, H. Dějiny východních Židů. V Olomouci: Votobia, 1997, p. 146.
[48] NOSEK, B. Židovské tradice a zvyky. V Praze: Karolinum, 2010, p. 142.
[49] VRIES, S. Židovské obřady a symboly. Praha: Vyšehrad, 2009, p. 226.
[50] Halachot – God’s commandments
[51] ONDRAČKA, L. Smrt a umírání v náboženských tradicích současnosti. V Praze: Cesta domů, 2010, p. 426.
[52] GREENWALD, Z. Ša’arej halacha: brány halachy. Praha: Agadah,. 2012, p. 426.
[53] Ibidem.
[54] NOSEK, B. Židovské tradice a zvyky. V Praze: Karolinum, 2010, p. 137.
[55] GREENWALD, Z. Ša’arej halacha: brány halachy. Praha: Agadah,. 2012, p. 429-431.
[56] VRIES, S. Židovské obřady a symboly. Praha: Vyšehrad, 2009, p. 257.
[57] DOLEŽELOVÁ, J. Úcta k živým i k mrtvým: židovské zvyky a instituce při pohřbívání. Židovská ročenka – na rok 5751. 1990-1991, p. 6; GREENWALD, Z. Ša’arej halacha: brány halachy. Praha: Agadah, 2012, p. 432.
[58] Minjan – the prescribed number of ten adult men for each service (NEWMAN, 2009, p. 117).
[59] GREENWALD, Z. Ša’arej halacha: brány halachy. Praha: Agadah, 2012, p. 432-433.
[60] DOLEŽELOVÁ, J. Úcta k živým i k mrtvým: židovské zvyky a instituce při pohřbívání. Židovská ročenka – na rok 5751. 1990-1991, p. 65; VRIES, S. Židovské obřady a symboly. Praha: Vyšehrad, 2009, p. 271.
[61] GREENWALD, Z. Ša’arej halacha: brány halachy. Praha: Agadah, 2012, p. 436-437.
[62] GREENWALD, Z. Ša’arej halacha: brány halachy. Praha: Agadah, 2012, p. 439-440.
[63] ONDRAČKA, L. Smrt a umírání v náboženských tradicích současnosti. V Praze: Cesta domů, 2010, p. 92.
[64] VRIES, S. Židovské obřady a symboly. Praha: Vyšehrad, 2009, p. 273.
[65] Pesach – pilgrimage feast celebrating the exodus of the Jews from slavery, Egypt (DIVECKÝ, 2005, p. 16).
[66] Šavuot – a pilgrimage festival celebrating the day the Lord gave the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai (DIVECKÝ, 2005, p. 26).
[67] Sukot – a pilgrimage feast, a feast of tabernacles, the erection of which is to commemorate the determination of an enslaved people, who set out into the uncertainty of the desert, in search of freedom (DIVECKÝ, 2005, p. 45).
[68] Roš ha-šana – Jewish New Year (DIVECKÝ, 2005, p. 33).
[69] GREENWALD, Z. Ša’arej halacha: brány halachy. Praha: Agadah, 2012, p. 437.
[70] PUTÍK, A.. Židovské tradice a zvyky:svátky, synagoga a běh života. Židovské muzeum v Praze, 2005, p. 71-72.
[71] STEINOVÁ, I. Bejt Olam: Pohřbívání v židovské tradici. Maskil. 2005, roč. 4, p. 8.
[72] PUTÍK, A.. Židovské tradice a zvyky:svátky, synagoga a běh života. Židovské muzeum v Praze, 2005, p. 71-72.
[73] Ibidem
[74] Rozhovor s Ch. KOČÍM, Praha, 22. 1. 2014; D. PETEREM, Praha, 21. 1. 2014
[75] NOSEK, B. Židovské tradice a zvyky. V Praze: Karolinum, 2010, p. 143
[76] ONDRAČKA, L. Smrt a umírání v náboženských tradicích současnosti. V Praze: Cesta domů, 2010, p. 91
[77] Interview with Ch. Kočí, Praha, 22. 1. 2014.
[78] Interview with Ch. Kočí, Praha, 22. 1. 2014.
[79] Interview with K. Sidon, Praha, 30. 1. 2014.
[80] Interview with Ch. Kočí, Praha, 22. 1. 2014.
[81] Interview with Ch. Kočí, Praha, 22. 1. 2014.
Celý příspěvek / Full Text Paper: Pohřbívání v židovské kultuře
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