Author: Romana Mondryk
Affiliation: Provozně ekonomická fakulta, Česká zemědělská univerzita, Kamýcká 129, 165 21 Praha-Suchdol
Email: Romana.Mondryk@seznam.cz
Language: Czech, English & Russian translation
Issue: 1/2017
Pages: 39-61 (23 pages)
Keywords: Hutsuls, ethnicity, ethnic identity, Ukraine, ethnographic group, Hutsuls art, culture
Abstract
This paper explores the life, culture, and values of the ethnic group known as Hutsuls, who live in Ukraine. The main section describes the basic characteristics of this group. The primary techniques used were semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. The field research was conducted in the Ivano-Frankovsk region of western Ukraine. The paper is not strictly divided into theoretical and practical elements, as theory is complemented by the answers given by respondents. The aim of this thesis was to establish the main aspects of Hutsul identity and the differences between them and other ethnic groups.
Introduction
The Hutsuls are an East Slavic ethnographic group living in the Carpathian region of Ukraine, primarily in the Ivano-Frankivsk, Chernivtsi, and Zakarpattia regions. The harsh mountainous conditions led the Hutsuls to adopt a distinctive lifestyle and economic activities centred on cattle breeding, particularly sheep, and woodcraft. As a result, the Hutsuls are renowned as excellent shepherds and artisans.
Ethnically, the Hutsuls consider themselves Ukrainians. Their self-identification is based more on regional affiliation than ethnicity. According to the latest census in 2001, the majority of Hutsuls reported Ukrainian as their native language. In addition to Ukrainian, they also speak their own Hutsul dialect, one of the archaic dialects of the Galician-Bukovinian subgroup of southwestern dialects. Many linguists describe the Hutsul dialect as a blend of Ukrainian, Russian, Rusyn, Hungarian, and Romanian. Besides Ukraine, the Hutsuls also reside in northern Romania, where they are known as the Marmarosh and southern Bukovinian Hutsuls.
Methodology and Aim of the Study
The aim of the study is to address the following research questions:
- What are the main elements of Hutsul ethnic identity?
- How do the Hutsuls differ from the surrounding population?
- What are the differences in the expressions of Hutsul ethnicity based on their regional distribution in Ukraine?
For the purposes of this research, a semi-structured questionnaire in Ukrainian was developed and distributed to the target group via the social network Facebook.com. Closer cooperation with some of the informants was conducted through this social network, also in Ukrainian. Furthermore, interviews were held with Hutsuls, followed by visits to open-air museums and Hutsul-specific museums. A significant amount of information on the Hutsuls was also obtained through personal accounts and knowledge from individuals close to the author, as well as from films and documentaries.
Fieldwork was conducted in two phases and two regions during 2015–2016: in Western Ukraine, specifically in the Ivano-Frankivsk and Zakarpattia regions.
Literature Review
The study of ethnographic groups in Ukraine from the 19th to the early 20th century was pursued by both Ukrainian and foreign scholars. Ukrainian researchers included Ivan Vahylevyč[1], V. Hnatjuk[2], O. Bodjans’ky, J. Holovac’ky, A. Duchnovič, P. Čubyns’ky, F. Vovk, and others. At the end of the 19th century, ethnographic studies of Western Ukraine flourished, largely due to the works of V. Hnatjuk, I. Franko, and Z. Kuzela. These authors‘ works are mostly accessible only in specialised libraries in Ukraine, and where available online, only fragments of their texts can be found.
Foreign historians and publicists who have studied the Hutsuls include Aleksander Zawadzki, in his 1872 work Guculi, and Raimund Friedrich Kaindl in his monographic work Die Huzulen[3], published in 1894. Kaindl, an Austrian by nationality, was originally from Bukovina and wrote about the Hutsuls in the following manner: “… there, amidst the surrounding foreign villages, lives a ‘mysterious little nation of highlanders – the Hutsuls,’ in the ‘boisterous, ancient forest-clad mountains.’”[4] Kaindl sought to uncover this mystery, dedicating much of his research and writing to the Hutsuls, work which was highly appreciated by Ivan Franko. The book Die Huzulen is divided into 17 chapters, each devoted to a specific period or sphere of Hutsul life. For instance, the chapter „Ditina“ (дитина – child) discusses the relationship with the mother as well as the transmission of Hutsul traditions, such as naming and baptising a child. Kaindl notes that alongside their Christian faith, the Hutsuls retained certain pagan customs and festivals.
Sofron Vytvyc’kyj, another 19th-century scholar, also conducted research on the Hutsuls, which was later documented by his follower Mykola Vasyl’čuk in the book Sofron Vytvyc’kyj – Istoryčnyj narys pro hucul’iv[5]. Vasyl’čuk describes Vytvyc’kyj’s theories on the origin of the Hutsuls, the areas they inhabited in the mid-19th century, their economic activities, ways of living, clothing, character, folklore, legends, and other characteristic aspects of these people. The book also includes stories recounted by Vytvyc’kyj about the bravery and strength of Hutsul men, the beauty and devotion of their women, and, above all, the majesty of the mountains, which have always been a key element of the Hutsuls’ identity.
The region inhabited by the Eastern Slavs also attracted the interest of the Czech historian Petr Kaleta, who authored a book on the ethnographic research of František Řehoř (1857–1899). The book Cesta do Haliče[6] focuses primarily on the life and work of F. Řehoř in Western Ukraine, particularly in Galicia, where Řehoř studied the Rusyn population, including the Hutsuls, as well as, for instance, the Jews. As a child, Řehoř moved with his parents to a village near Lviv, and he became very fond of this new environment. He admired the ancient lifestyle and agricultural practices of the local inhabitants (Ukrainians, Hutsuls, Jews, etc.)[7]. Řehoř wrote numerous articles on local culture and the character of the inhabitants, for which he was awarded by several institutions, including the Lviv Rusyn society Prosvita (Просвіта) and the Museum of the Kingdom of Bohemia.[8]
Ethnic Identity
Ethnic identity refers to an individual’s identification with their cultural group, wherein members share common values, culture, and a belief in a shared origin[9]. Through ethnic identity, an individual engages in activities with their ethnic group, assists its members, and shows an interest in its welfare. However, the main factor is the natural sense of belonging to that ethnic group and the desire to be a part of it. “Ethnic, national identity is a matter of an individual’s self-identification with a particular community, which cannot be imposed; it is the result of upbringing within the family, school, and wider society.” An individual’s ethnic identity may change over time, for instance, due to migration to a country where they become assimilated, which is a natural phenomenon[10]. These statements are derived from the constructivist theory of ethnicity, which posits that ethnic identity is a modern phenomenon, a social construct.
A common feature of the vast majority of works published since the mid-19th century has been the primordialist conception of the nation: an axiomatic view, corresponding to the public opinion of the time, that the nation is an ancient category whose objective existence can and must be revived and renewed, as it represents a specific value of the human race.[11]
An ethnic group, or ethnos, is defined as “…a social group that is culturally distinct from the majority society… The term ‘ethnic group’ emphasises not only biological traits but also sociocultural characteristics such as morals, customs, traditions, social heritage, and the interplay between biological-genetic and sociocultural features.”[12] An ethnographic group is a smaller part of an ethnos, territorially delineated yet maintaining ethnic consciousness, language, cultural awareness, and a way of life.[13] According to Western scholars, the defining characteristics of an ethnographic group are:
The fact that in their place of residence, they do not possess their own national state.
It holds true that “…they have their history, but they do not have historicity….”[14]
The emergence of ethnographic groups, including the Hutsuls, is the result of the peculiarities of a nation’s historical fate, the prolonged isolation of its parts, or the regeneration of ancient ethnic entities. Ethnic formations typically arise at the intersection of two or more distinct cultures.
In addition to the Hutsul ethnographic group, Ukraine is home to other ethnographic groups such as the Boykos (130 individuals according to the 2001 census), Lemkos (600 individuals), Litvins, Poleshchuks, and Pinchuks, each with its own “ethnogenetic” nature, origin, and culture.[15] Other ethnographic subgroups include Poliany (поляни), Pokutiany (покутяни), Opoliany (ополяни), Volyniany, Poleshuky, Cherkasy, and others with unclear ethnic awareness. Due to urbanisation and internal policies in Ukraine, the influence of these groups is diminishing, and some are disappearing.
The Hutsuls
The Hutsuls are often classified by scholars outside this group as a subgroup of Rusyns; however, they themselves typically do not identify as Rusyns. This classification, developed by ethnographers and other researchers, is therefore inaccurate. Nevertheless, the Rusyn issue will be briefly explained. Rusyns are “…inhabitants of the Carpathians in the border regions of Slovakia, Poland, and Ukraine.”[16] Scholars such as Pavel Robert Magocsi[17], Sven Gustavsson[18], and Ivan Pop[19] have studied the Rusyns, discussing their origin, history, character, and culture.[20] According to the Ottův slovník, Rusyns were also historically referred to as Malorussians, a branch of the greater Russian nation. In this dictionary, Rusyns are equated with Ukrainians (Intelligent Malorussians are called Rusyns in speech and literature in Austria-Hungary, Russian in Russia, and Ukrainian in Ukraine).[21] At the end of the 20th century, Šatava described Rusyns as primarily inhabiting the historical region of Subcarpathian Rus, eastern Slovakia, Poland (Lemkos), northeastern Hungary, northern Romania, western Ukraine, and, due to economic migration, significant Rusyn minorities also live in North America and the former Yugoslavia, particularly in Vojvodina, where since 1974, Rusyn has been one of the official languages.[22]
Members of the Rusyn ethnic group consider themselves to be a distinct nation, and researchers divide them into five main groups based on ethnic differences: Lemkos, Boykos, Hutsuls, Verhovintsi, and Dolyniany.[23]
Determining the exact origin of the Hutsuls is very difficult. According to Vasyl’čuk (1863), the members of this group themselves do not know precisely where their ancestors came from or how they arrived in the Carpathian region. There is little documentation on the Hutsuls in registers, books, or church records. The Tatar invasions of the 13th century in Europe and the large fires destroyed many documents, and, at that time, the Hutsul population, according to Vasyl’čuk, was illiterate, so history was passed down orally in the form of tales or myths. Nevertheless, many historians and ethnographers have their own theories regarding the origin of the Hutsuls.
Vytvyc’kyj, whose research Vasyl’čuk wrote about, was a proponent of the Norman theory, which posits that the Normans played a crucial role in forming the „Old Rus’” state. He therefore derived the origin of the Hutsuls from Scandinavia. In Scandinavia, he observed a similar lifestyle, traditions, and affinities among the local population. The Scandinavians, like the Hutsuls, admired the mountains, displayed courage in rafting, and were always drawn to distant mountains and seas. Thus, Vytvyc’kyj believed that the Hutsuls did not originate from the Tibetan mountains, i.e., they did not migrate from east to west, but rather from the northwest to the east, from Scandinavia. They likely arrived together with Rurik, who in 862 was invited to Rus to become the local prince. He travelled to Rus with his two brothers and became the founder of the oldest ruling dynasty in Rus – the Rurikids.[24]
According to another theory, the Hutsuls arrived in the territory of present-day Ukraine with the Scythians, a nomadic steppe tribe of Iranian origin. The Scythians inhabited the territory of present-day Ukraine around the first millennium AD. The area inhabited by the Scythians (Eastern Europe) was known as Scythia.[25]
Figure 1. The settlement of the Hutsuls in Ukraine.
Source: Googlemaps.com, own processing.
Legend of the map: Red stars – towns of Hutsulshchyna, yellow stars (with the number 2): northern – Ukraine’s highest mountain Hoverla, southern – Pop Ivan.
Today, the southern border of Hutsulshchyna (the area inhabited by the Hutsuls) runs along the ridges of the Horhany mountains (Горганів), through Svidovets’ (Свідовець), the Hutsul Alps[26], and the northern slopes of the Chyvchyn Mountains (Чивчинські гори). The southern ethnographic border forms a line from the villages of Zelena (Зелена) – Deljatyn (Делятин) – Jablunkov (Яблунков) – Pistyn’ (Пістинь) – Kosiv (Косів) – Kuty (Кути – Kosiv district) – Vyzhnytsia (Вижниця).
In the course of the expansion of Hutsulshchyna, its borders occasionally extend to towns such as Kolomyia, Nadvirna (Надвірна), Solotvyno (Солотвино), and Monastyrchany (Монастирчани). In the southwest, the Hutsuls inhabit the entire Tysa valley, both to the north and south of Rakhiv.
Brief Historical Context
The Hutsuls are primarily concentrated in the Chornohora area (Чорногори)[27], which, along with its foothills, belonged to the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia in the 12th century[28]. Since the time of Casimir the Great[29] in the 14th century, Hutsulshchyna became part of Poland. By 1770, Hutsulshchyna had gradually formed part of the Ottoman Empire, the Principality of Moldavia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth[30], the Kingdom of Hungary (and later Austria-Hungary). In November 1918, the Hutsuls staged a revolt against Hungarian rule, culminating in the proclamation of the so-called Hutsul Republic on 18 January 1919.
That same year, in May, the Central Ruthenian National Council in Uzhhorod decided to join Subcarpathian Ruthenia to Czechoslovakia. During the revolt against the Hungarians, the slogan “Away from Hungary” was shouted. The Hutsuls established the Hutsul Republic in Yasinya and the surrounding area, regarded as the most nationally conscious and culturally advanced Ruthenian group. They maintained it from 5 February until 11 June 1919. Already in November 1918, Hutsul peasants had opposed the Uzhhorod National Council, which advocated autonomy for the Ruthenians within Hungary, and established the Hutsul National Council in Yasinya on 8 November 1918. This council governed until 11 June when it was dissolved by the Romanians. Romanian occupation ended only with the arrival of Czechoslovak troops on 20 August 1920.
The Hutsul Republic, with its capital in Yasinya, called for the unification of Carpathian Ukraine with Soviet Ukraine[31]. The head of its government was Stefan Klochurak, a Ukrainian-oriented Carpatho-Ruthenian social democrat, lawyer, and editor. However, the Hutsul Republic was not recognised and was dissolved by Romanian forces in June 1919.
During the interwar period, Hutsulshchyna gradually came under Romanian, Polish, and Czechoslovak rule, which lasted until 1939. On the night between 13 and 14 March 1939, fighting occurred between the Carpathian Sich[32], which sought the independence of the so-called Carpathian Republic, and Czechoslovak troops. However, on 14 March, Slovakia declared independence, and Czechoslovak forces had to withdraw from Subcarpathia and confront Hungarian attacks. On 15 March, an independent Carpathian Ukraine was declared, headed by Augustin Voloshin, a Greek Catholic priest, teacher, and Czechoslovak politician. On 15 March 2002, Voloshin was named a Hero of Ukraine by the then President of Ukraine, Leonid Kuchma[33].
„…this betrayal did not go without historical retribution: the Hungarians quickly absorbed this ephemeral state, and in 1945 this former Czechoslovak territory became, for the next forty-five years, an integral part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.„[34]
On 18 March 1939, Hungary occupied the entirety of Carpathian Ukraine (the end of the Carpathian Republic) and promised it autonomy within the Kingdom of Hungary. Hungarian and Ruthenian became the official languages, and Subcarpathia remained part of Hungary until the end of World War II.
In the 16th to 19th centuries, opryshky (опришки) – bandits and participants in peasant uprisings against Polish nobility, Moldavian boyars, Hungarian feudal lords, and the Hungarian administration – were active in Hutsulshchyna. The most famous opryshok was Oleksa Dovbush, a legendary defender of the people who later inspired Ivan Olbracht to write the ballad „Nikola Šuhaj Loupežník.“ „Just as in the mid-18th century Oleksa Dovbush avenged the wrongs done to the people by the lords from whom he came, so now the eyes of the oppressed nation were turned towards Nikola Šuhaj.„[35]
Despite the ‚artificial‘ (and frequently changing) administrative governance, the Hutsuls lived throughout in accordance with their ancient customs, mountain conditions, Wallachian law, and alpine pastoralism. In partial mountain isolation, they gradually developed a shared material and spiritual culture and dialect.[36]
The Hutsul Community and Dwelling
A characteristic feature of Hutsul communities is the relatively distant parish centres from each other – the settlements thus occupy a fairly large area. Hutsul settlements were often situated near a river or stream for economic benefits. Near rivers, churches (wooden churches), parishes, offices, or schools were built. However, it was also common to build churches on hills near villages. This isolated nature of the settlements has partly persisted to the present day. In the centres of Hutsulshchyna, guesthouses, restaurants, and markets for tourists, who come not only to enjoy the beauty of the Carpathians but also to explore Hutsul culture, have gradually developed.
Representative examples of such communities include the towns of Yasinya, Yaremche, Verkhovyna (Žabie), Rakhiv, and Kolomyia. Surrounding these larger, well-known towns are equally significant smaller communities, which, in certain aspects, preserve more of the Hutsul spirit than the towns themselves.
Figure 2. Hutsul dwelling – hražda.
Source: Hutsul’s’ka chata-hražda. In: Ukrcenter.com. Ukrajins’ka Fotohalereja. [online]. 9. 2. 2011 [cit. 7. 3. 2016]. Available: <www.ukrcenter.com/Фотогалерея/48186/hranom/48761/Гуцульська-хата-гражда>.
The typical ancient Slavic dwelling is the hražda (гражда), preserved in small Hutsul communities[37]. A hražda represents a complex of residential and farm buildings, including a courtyard. It forms a regular quadrangle and resembles a fortress, which can only be accessed through a gate or doorway. This type of structure was designed to protect the Hutsul family from strangers, wild animals, or strong winds and snow. In addition to preserved old villages, hraždy can be seen in the open-air museums of Kyiv, Lviv, or Uzhhorod.[38]
In addition to the house and farm buildings, the hražda complex includes gardens and arable land, known as carynky (царинками). One must not forget the expansive pastures, known as polonyny (полонинами), where stables for livestock and shelters for shepherds are constructed in spring. The primary construction material for the hražda and other Hutsul buildings is wood. The house has a stone floor only when built on uneven ground; otherwise, the floors are made of either clay or wood.
Way of Life and Crafts
“Animal husbandry, woodworking, and leatherwork. Weaving. These are traditional crafts still practised today.”[39] (woman, 35 years old, Uzhhorod).
The Hutsuls are modest people, and their lifestyle is simple. A Hutsul goes to bed at dusk and rises at dawn—every good farmer considers sleeping during the working day to be a sin. The mountainous geographical conditions, combined with socio-economic factors, forced the Hutsuls to be self-sufficient in producing all the necessary household items. With the development of capitalism, domestic production became commercial, and the Hutsuls began trading their handmade goods (clothing, weapons, musical instruments, etc.). According to rough estimates from the late 19th century, 65% of mountain residents sought additional income to meet their basic needs, and 10% of the population of Hutsulshchyna engaged in domestic crafts alongside their farm work. According to Shuchevych, no other region in Rus’ placed such importance on domestic crafts as Hutsulshchyna.[40] The craftsmanship of the local people attracted the attention of intellectuals, who founded the Hutsul Crafts Association in 1888 in Kolomyia, followed by a crafts school in 1895.
During the 19th century, folk crafts retained their natural character, but by the early 20th century, changes in structure and technology were becoming evident.
“Traditionally, a Hutsul engages in various crafts, using materials ranging from wood to stone.”[41] (man, 23 years old, Ivano-Frankivsk).
Hutsulshchyna is rich in its ancient culture and folk art. Folk art became a means for the Hutsuls to develop national consciousness. Hutsulshchyna is a unique and inexhaustible source for research and study of ancient traditions, customs, costumes, and art. Over time, ceramics, wood carving, leather embossing, and weaving became art forms in Hutsulshchyna. Two main patterns can be observed in Hutsul ornamentation: geometric patterns, which are most commonly seen in weaving and on vyshyvanky, and floral patterns, which are prominent in ceramics. These two styles are combined in the decorative arts of wood and leather. Regarding colours, the Hutsuls do not shy away from bright, sometimes even garish colours. However, the traditional colours are green from plants, yellow from plants or clay, red, and brown.[42]
For the Hutsuls, agriculture and animal husbandry are of paramount importance. Shepherding sheep provides them with food (milk, meat, brynza) and raw materials (wool for clothing, leather for shoes, belts, bags, etc.). The Hutsuls are the only Ukrainian group for whom sheep farming is the main branch of economic activity.[43] Livestock farming in these regions is supported by numerous mountain meadows—polonyny[44], healthy mountain air, and abundant water springs, including mineral springs. Among the Hutsuls, a distinctive and unique cuisine has emerged, focusing primarily on dairy and meat dishes (huslyanka / гуслянка, brynza, mutton, shashlik, etc.).
As for the daily Hutsul diet, it has always been very simple and monotonous, yet not poor in quality. The most important ingredients for preparing Hutsul dishes are beans, corn, potatoes, beets, cabbage, peas, milk, and meat. The main dish is kulesha (кулеша)—a cornmeal porridge eaten with milk, huslyanka (гуслянка—a mix of milk and cream), brynza, or less frequently with butter or solonyna (солонина—pork preserved in salt). Potatoes or turnips are other staples the Hutsuls cannot do without. These ingredients often saved the Hutsuls from hunger during difficult times.[45] Dishes cooked throughout Ukraine, including Hutsulshchyna, include pyrohy (пироги), holubtsi (голубці), pelmeni (пельмені), or borsch (борш).
Forestry is also highly developed. The Hutsuls build their log houses and churches from wood, and they craft furniture, which is carved by hand. The Hutsul musical instrument—the trembita (трембіта)—is also made of wood. Hutsul wooden architecture deserves recognition and can be admired throughout western Ukraine.[46] The majority of wooden churches are located in northern Hutsulshchyna, alongside which there are typically bell towers covered with a shelter. Ukraine is home to approximately 3,000 wooden churches, which are unique in their resemblance to the state emblem—the tryzub (тризуб)—as well as the traditional Ukrainian ritual candlestick—the trinity.[47] These churches are not only architectural masterpieces but also important spiritual centres.[48]
Every Hutsul family engages in the processing of plant and animal raw materials. The spread of traditional methods of processing flax, hemp, and wool in the Carpathians dates back to the first millennium AD, as evidenced by the discovery of weaving tools. Wool is undoubtedly the primary material for weaving. It is used to produce various fabrics for clothing and interiors, among other things. The quality of the wool depended on the breed of sheep and was also influenced by feeding and animal care. For a long time, wool was processed manually using small tools, and only later were weaving machines introduced in towns. In addition to fur coats and vests, furriers also made fur hats. Hutsulshchyna is also a place where leather and leather products are processed in large quantities. Already in the 17th and 18th centuries, people used products made by Hutsul craftsmen, such as belts, bags, pouches for tobacco or money, scabbards for hunting knives, etc. In the early 19th century, leatherworking centres began to form.[49]
Embroidery of traditional shirts—vyshyvanky (вишиванки)—is a typically female craft, representing goodness, love, and loyalty through women’s hands. These embroidered shirts have always been considered a national symbol and a source of pride for Ukrainians in general. “The Ukrainian embroidered shirt is not just clothing; it is a true protector/talisman.”[50]
The first embroidered shirts on Slavic territory had a religious significance, protecting their owners from evil. Thus, embroidery was placed on the sleeves, collars, and lower hems, anywhere the body was exposed. Special designs are embroidered on shirts for ceremonial events and religious holidays.
 |
| Figure 3. Embroidered shirt. Source: personal photo |
Embroidery patterns and styles vary across the regions of Ukraine—both in technique and colour. The patterns and ornaments on shirts have become popular not only on clothing, as many of them have ancient meanings that people still value. “For me, it is a symbol of the immortality of the Ukrainian nation. As long as there is a ‚vyshyvanka,‘ the song plays. It is the workwear of the Ukrainian people.”[51] (man, 23 years old, Ivano-Frankivsk). “The vyshyvanka is our symbol and pride.”[52] (man, 27 years old, village of Brustury).
Blacksmithing has been known in Hutsulshchyna since ancient times. Metal tools such as hoes, shovels, ploughs, sickles, scythes, axes, chisels, horseshoes, knife blades, etc., are produced. The complexity of the construction and the artistic level attest to the knowledge of technology and the skills of the craftsmen. Casting was a more advanced technique.
Religion
“I am a Christian. One cannot live without faith.”[53] (man, 42 years old, Lviv).
The distinctiveness of the ancient Hutsul faith lies in its connection with the surrounding nature and the pastoral way of life, which did not change with the advent of Christianity.[54] From the time the Carpathians were settled until the 7th century, the Hutsuls were Orthodox or Greek Christians, adhering to Eastern Byzantine rites. The first churches in Hutsulshchyna were also Orthodox. With the adoption of the Union of Brest in 1596, the Poles began spreading the Greek-Catholic faith or Union[55] (the union of the Orthodox and Catholic churches) among the population of Galicia and Bukovina. In 1646, in Subcarpathian Hutsulshchyna, the Uzhhorod Union was adopted, which sought to restore ecclesiastical communion between the Byzantine Rite churches and the Roman Catholic Church. Hungarian and Austrian authorities forced the Hutsuls to attend Union churches, which were either taken from the Orthodox Church or newly constructed.[56]
The Hutsuls are deeply devout, though they are not particularly tolerant of changes in ecclesiastical matters. Nevertheless, some were willing to adopt the Unionist Greek-Catholic faith. Services continued to be conducted in Church Slavonic, and the religious holidays remained unchanged. However, a significant portion of the Hutsuls remained loyal to the Orthodox faith, which at the time was illegal. Conflicts and disagreements frequently arose between the two faiths, a situation that was exploited by the authorities, who sought to destabilize relations among the inhabitants of the mountainous regions in various ways. With the arrival of Soviet power in Hutsulshchyna in 1949, the Greek-Catholic Church was banned and was not legalized again until the final years of Soviet rule.
The Hutsuls are highly dedicated. For the needs of the church, they are often willing to give all they can, not only in money but also in kind, such as dairy products, honey, bread, and more. They treat the priest with great trust and respect, addressing him as panotče (панотче). While they do not disdain people of other faiths, they tend to avoid contact with them, as they see no reason to interact.
“Faith keeps me alive. My son fought for nine months in the east, and without my faith, I wouldn’t have survived.”[57] (woman, 57 years old, Pechenizhyn, Kolomyia district).
“Holy Orthodoxy is the meaning of human life and the guide on one’s path.”[58] (man, 27 years old, village of Brustury).
A unique style of national icon painting developed in Hutsulshchyna. The saints, painted with white faces, were mostly depicted in a vertical posture. A large collection of domestic paintings—icons from the 18th and 19th centuries—can be viewed in the archives and exhibitions of the Museum of Ukrainian Home Icons at the Radomysl Historical and Cultural Complex (Радомисль).[59]
Strong traditions of shamanism still exist in Hutsulshchyna today. With some luck, one can still encounter a Hutsul mol’far (мольфар)—a person endowed with supernatural abilities, appearing as an enemy, sorcerer, or folk magician. They were once called “earth gods,” but today they are more commonly known as healers. People hold mol’fars in high esteem, believing that their prophecies come true, and there are even accounts of mol’fars curing incurable illnesses. As with everything, there are both good and bad healers, but the Hutsuls claim that the number of good ones far outweighs the bad.[60]
Figure 4. Church in the village of Mykulychyn (personal photograph).
Figure 5. Wooden cerkev in the Museum of Folk Architecture and Life in Uzhhorod (personal photograph).
Religious and Calendar Holidays
In Orthodoxy, the Julian calendar is used, and all dates (compared to the civil calendar) are shifted by 13 days. “The Julian calendar is based on a year length of 365.25 days, hence the alignment every four years (three years of 365 days, with a leap year of 366). However, since a year is not exactly 365.25 days but rather 365.2422 days, the Julian year is slightly more than 11 minutes longer than the actual year. As a result, shifts have occurred over the centuries.”[61] Orthodox believers strive to strictly observe fasting traditions. In addition to the forty-day fast (reflecting the 40 days Jesus spent in the desert) before Easter[62] and Christmas, it is customary to fast on other days as well, such as Wednesdays and Fridays. The most important Orthodox holidays are Easter—Velykden’ (Великдень)—and Christmas—Rizdvo Khrystove (Різдво Христове).
Easter, or Velykden’, also known as Paska (from the word “Pascha”), derives its name from the Old Testament holiday of Passover, celebrated by the Jews to commemorate their liberation from Egyptian captivity. The Easter lamb represents Jesus Christ, which is why Jesus is often referred to as the Lamb of God. The celebration of Pascha should fall on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the vernal equinox. If the Jewish Passover falls on the same Sunday, Orthodox Pascha is moved to the following Sunday. “On Easter, no work is done, so as not to disturb the harmony of spring and the diversity of nature. People greet each other, prepare feasts, and play games involving the colouring of eggs. Eggs are a symbol of the birth of all things in the world.”[63] In the past, Hutsuls would ride to the Easter service on horseback, led by the father, the head of the family. Horses carried vessels containing ceremonial bread known as paska (паска) to the church. A key Orthodox Easter tradition is the blessing of Easter baskets, which contain food. Another Easter tradition is the colouring of eggs—pysanky.
The most important holiday of the winter season is Christmas—Rizdvo Khrystove (Різдво Христове), which literally translates as “The Birth of Christ.” “Other Christmas holidays also have their own distinctive names. During the Christmas season, a traditional greeting between people is: ‘Khrystos narodyvsia,’ (Christ is born) to which the reply is: ‘Slavimo yoho,’ (Let us glorify Him).”[64] After the Christmas service, the villages would be filled with joy, with young people dancing and carolling. The carols were accompanied by music, dancing, and, of course, food. It was customary to reward the carollers with small amounts of money or food, and the elders would give them vodka or other alcohol. Unlike the valley dwellers, the Hutsuls did not have their own carols, so they improvised, ending each one with: “Oj, daj Bozhe!” The money collected was then used to cover various church expenses, such as candles or icons.
In the context of the Orthodox Christmas season, January 13th is celebrated as Melanka (меланка—Christmas Eve)—a New Year’s Eve ceremony featuring traditional animal disguises and folk characters. This is followed by the feast of St. Vasyl (Василия) on January 14th, also known as Old New Year. On this day, in addition to attending church services, young boys would scatter wheat or other grains in the homes of relatives, neighbours, and acquaintances. The task of scattering the grains was typically carried out by a boy, as it was believed that the first person to enter a home on New Year’s Day should be male, bringing the family good fortune and prosperity. One of the most interesting Hutsul celebrations is the feast of Jordan (Йордан)—the feast of the Baptism of Jesus Christ by St. John the Baptist (Іваном Хрестителем) in the River Jordan. In the mountains, priests usually blessed the water in churches, but during the feast, they blessed it directly in the rivers. When the priest dipped the cross into the water, everyone would scoop up the water in their hands and wash themselves with it, even in freezing temperatures. Afterwards, the panotče would sprinkle everyone with Jordanian water.[65]
Another significant celebration marking the arrival of spring is the procession to the polonyna. For nearly half a year, shepherds spend their time in the polonynas—the highland pastures where they graze livestock—only returning to their base at the sound of the trembita[66] for meals, milking, or overnight stays. Before this period, however, there is the ceremonial procession to the polonyna, which is a significant event for the locals. Hutsul shepherds, along with the villagers’ livestock, are led to the distant mountains to the polonynas. This ritual is accompanied by Hutsul music, friends, neighbours, and, of course, good food and drink. Nearly the entire village gathers around the bonfire, and a priest blesses the shepherds and their herds. The shepherds depart for the polonyna in May and usually return in September.[67]
On the polonyna, shepherds endure harsh conditions, including cold, rain, and frequent snow. Despite the difficult work from dawn until dusk, most Hutsuls aspire to become polonynnyks. Three things characterize Hutsul shepherds—brynza, the trembita, and the bonfire. Upon the shepherds’ return home, a celebratory concert is held in their honour. The livestock is returned to its owners, and the cheese, mainly brynza, is partially sold at local markets and partially distributed to the livestock owners.[68] For the Hutsuls, sheep symbolize prosperity and wealth.
Family Rituals
The most cherished family ritual in Hutsulshchyna is the Hutsul wedding. Traditions associated with weddings are still strictly adhered to by the Hutsuls today. They dress in national costumes and decorate their horses. Hutsul weddings are full of both joyful and melancholic songs, dances, games, jokes, and other entertainment. Before the wedding, people go from house to house with invitations, weave wreaths for the bride and groom, bake cakes, all while singing traditional songs in good spirits. Additionally, before the wedding, the entire family gathers, primarily the women, who handle most of the preparations, decorations, and adherence to customs.
Another significant event for the Hutsuls, as Orthodox Christians, is the christening. A religious ceremony is held for the baptism of the newborn, followed by a feast. Guests bring gifts (gold, bread, toys, etc.), and sometimes special ceremonial songs are sung, wishing the newborn and their parents a happy life.[69] At weddings, christenings, or birthdays, the Hutsuls are fond of exchanging gifts among themselves.
In human life, joy is often followed by sorrow, especially in connection with funerals. The deceased is not placed in the coffin until the second day, when relatives and neighbours gather in the evening and remain until late at night. Psalms are read by the priest over the deceased, and when a verse is read, vodka is served. Neighbours sound the mournful trembita, and a large bonfire burns near the house. The Hutsuls hold the deceased in great reverence, keeping them at home for two days, with the funeral taking place on the third day. When everything is prepared for the funeral, all those present gather by the coffin in silence. The priest sings the Gospels and gives a sermon, at the end of which he asks for forgiveness for all the deceased’s sins: “Farewell, once, twice, thrice.”[70]
Music and Theatre
Hutsul musical culture has long been characterised by its original mountain melodies in well-known kolomyikas, ceremonial and domestic songs. Hutsul melodies, especially wedding songs and the playing of instruments like the drymba (дримба – a type of jaw harp), flute, or trembita, have always captivated listeners, as has the choreography of the dances ‘kolomyika’ and ‘hutsulka.’ The ‘hutsulka’ dance consists of the kolomyika musical and choreographic structure in the first part and the kozachok (козачок – kozachok) structure in the second part. The most famous musical instrument is undoubtedly the trembita (трембіта)—a wooden, conical musical instrument approximately 2 to 3 metres in length. Since ancient times, the trembita has served as a signalling instrument, used to call for help during enemy attacks or to guide lost travellers in the mountains. The trembita also signalled the beginning and end of significant festivals and rituals.
In the village of Krasnoyillya (Красної лля), there is a Hutsul amateur theatre group in the Verkhovyna district, founded in 1910 by the Ukrainian historian, writer, composer, and ethnographer Hnat Khotkevych (Гнат Хоткевич) and a group of amateur actors. This theatre brought many new and original elements into the culture of Ukrainian society at that time. The theatre performed not only in Ukraine but also in Krakow, Poland, and in Moscow[71]. The fate of the current Hutsul Theatre is closely linked with that of the National Museum of Hutsul Theatre Hnat Khotkevych, opened in 1987. In 2004, the museum was awarded the title of a National Museum.
Discussion and Conclusion
The main objective of this study was to determine the key elements of the ethnic identity of the inhabitants of the Ukrainian Carpathians—the Hutsuls. To achieve this goal, it was necessary to gather information from local residents, which was done through semi-standardised interviews and questionnaires. In the vast majority of cases, members of this ethnographic group agreed on the key elements that define their identity. For these indigenous people, their ancient way of life, which they maintain despite certain changes, remains crucial, as does their faith, predominantly Orthodox. Most of them sustain their hope and optimism through their belief in God. Other key elements for preserving their distinctiveness are certainly their traditions, art, and culture in general. As for the Carpathian environment, some noted that one must be born in the Carpathians to truly be a Hutsul.
In conclusion, the Hutsuls are a unique ethnographic group with a distinct way of life shaped by their mountainous environment, spirituality, and traditional crafts. Their identity, strongly tied to the Carpathian region, is characterized by deep religious devotion, particularly within the Orthodox Christian tradition, and a close connection with nature. Despite facing numerous historical challenges, the Hutsuls have preserved their traditions, culture, and language, which continue to be a source of pride and resilience.
The Hutsuls’ hospitality, strong communal bonds, and respect for their land and livestock remain central to their cultural identity. Music, dance, and art are also vital components, with the trembita and kolomyika standing out as distinctive cultural markers. The combination of their ancient customs, strong work ethic, and spiritual beliefs sets them apart from surrounding populations, reinforcing their sense of belonging and continuity in a rapidly changing world.
This research underlines that to fully appreciate the Hutsul way of life, one must spend time among them, experiencing their culture and daily practices firsthand. As a community, the Hutsuls demonstrate how ethnic identity can be maintained through traditions and faith, even amidst external pressures and modern influences.
In response to the question: „What do you believe is the main element of the Hutsuls’ ethnic identity?“ informants answered as follows:
“Spiritual and material culture.”[72] (woman, 30 years old, Kolomyia)
“Ancient customs and faith in God.”[73] (woman, 50 years old, L’viv)
“Dialect and culture.”[74] (woman, 48 years old, village of Kostylivka, Rakhiv district)
“Clothing that reflects traditional methods of farming, specifically—shepherding. Most elements of Hutsul clothing (vberi – вбері, as the Hutsuls say) are made from sheep’s wool or fur: coats, vests, jackets, and trousers—hači (гачі), winter hats, summer felt hats, and warm high socks—kapchury (капчури).”[75] (man, 45 years old, Kolomyia)
“Strong will to live, hard work…”[76](man, 36 years old, Chernivtsi)
Another research question was how the Hutsuls differ from those around them. The Hutsuls maintain their original culture, strictly observe religious customs and traditions, and live an ancient way of life that requires little more than a dwelling, a small piece of farmland, a few livestock, and favourable weather. Despite the hardships and difficult living conditions throughout the historical stages of Hutsulshchyna, they have stood firm and preserved their own. They differ from their surroundings by their way of life, deep faith in God, and values that are distinct not only from those of city dwellers but also from those of other villages outside of Hutsulshchyna. Generally, the Hutsuls do not differ much from the rest of western Ukraine’s inhabitants, as they consider themselves Ukrainians, and many of their customs, traditions, and cultural elements are also Ukrainian. They take pride in where they live, in who they are, and in their nation.
“Yes, I am proud. Because we, despite external factors, threats, and pressure, have preserved our identity, perhaps more than any other Ukrainian ethnic group.”[77] (woman, 35 years old, Uzhhorod)
“If I am a Hutsul, I am proud of that, but first and foremost, I am a Ukrainian!”[78] (man, 23 years old, Ivano-Frankivs’k)
Within the Hutsul ethnographic group, there are also minor differences, but these are mostly small. Primarily, they are cultural expressions, such as music, folk costumes, or wood carving. The most noticeable differences can be seen in the types of costumes and clothing within Transcarpathia. Each region of Zakarpattia has its specific ornaments, which hold a certain significance for the locals. In other aspects of Hutsul life and their distribution across western Ukraine, no major differences are evident.
“A Hutsul must be born in the mountains and live his life there. He may travel the world, but his permanent residence must be in the mountains. Many Hutsuls are excellent musicians, and almost all are talented dancers of traditional dances and singers of Hutsul songs. Hutsuls love the land; it is sacred to them. They also love their livestock, can speak to them, and care for them because it is said that all the wealth of a Hutsul lies in his livestock. Hutsuls are deeply religious, and although Christianity sometimes intertwines with paganism, the dominant spirit is Christian. Hutsuls are hospitable and kind; any guest who steps onto a Hutsul’s yard is invited into the house and offered hospitality. Hutsuls are very good-hearted, but to truly understand them and learn what they are like, you must stay in Hutsulshchyna and spend some time living among them!”[79] (man, 27 years old, village of Brustury)
[1] VAHYLEVYČ, Ivan. Hutsuli, meshkantsi Skhidnogo Prykarpattya (Гуцули, мешканці Східного Прикарпаття). 1837.
[2] HNATJUK, Volodymyr Mychajlovyč. Hutsuli. Podkarpatskaja Rus‘. 1923 (1–2).
[3] KAINDL, Raimund Friedrich. Die Huzulen. A. Hölder, 1894. ISBN 1-168-37241-0.
[4] Freely translated from the original: „Там, серед навколишніх іншомовних поселень, живе ‚в зашумлених правічним лісом горах‘ – таємничий маленький народ верховинців-гуцулів.“
[5] VASYL’ČUK, Mykola. Sofron Vytvyc’kyj – Istoryčnyj narys pro hutsuliv (Софрон Витвицький – Історичний нарис про гуцулів). L’viv, 1863.
[6] KALETA, Petr. Cesta do Haliče. František Řehoř a poznání života východní Haliče ve 2. pol. 19. st. Votobia, 2004. ISBN 80-7220-174-3.
[7] KALETA, Petr. František Řehoř: Milovník života haličských Rusínů.
[8] ŘEHOŘ, František. In: Zlatá Praha. Praha, J. Otto, 1884–1929. Periodikum vydávané jednou týdně. ISSN: 1801-2493.
[9] ERIKSEN, T. H. Sociální a kulturní antropologie. Příbuzenství, národnostní příslušnost, rituál. In: KUTNOHORSKÁ, Jana. Multikulturní ošetřovatelství: pro praxi. Grada, 2013, s. 17. ISBN 978-80-247-4413-1.
[10] KUTNOHORSKÁ, Jana. Multikulturní ošetřovatelství pro praxi. Praha: Grada, 2013, s. 20. ISBN 978-80-247-4413-1.
[11] HROCH, Miroslav. Národy nejsou dílem náhody: příčiny a předpoklady utváření moderních evropských národů. Praha: SLON, 2009. ISBN 978-80-7419-010-0.
[12] KUTNOHORSKÁ, Jana. 2013, s. 20–21.
[13] BACEVIČ, F. S. Slovnyk terminiv mižkul’turnoji komunikaciji (Словник термінів міжкультурної комунікації). In: Terminy-mizhkult-komunikacii.wikidot.com. [online]. [cit. 9. 2. 2016]. Available: <http://terminy-mizhkult-komunikacii.wikidot.com/>.
[14] Freely translated from: „…вони мають свою історію, але не мають своєї‘ історичності….“
[15] PONOMAR’OV, Anatolij. Etnohrafični hrupy Ukrajinciv. In: Interklasa.pl. Polski portal edukacyjny. [online]. [cit. 1. 3. 2016]. Available: <http://www.interklasa.pl/…>.
[16] KANDERT, Josef. Náboženské systémy: Člověk náboženský a jak mu rozumět. Grada, 2010, s. 177. ISBN 978-80-247-3166-7.
[17] MAGOCSI, Pavel Robert. Národ odnikud. Vydavatelství V. Paďaka, 2014. ISBN 978-80-966-387-092-2.
[18] GUSTAVSSON, Sven, MARVAN, Jiří. Jihoslovanští Rusíni, jejich kultura a jazyk. Univerzita Karlova v Praze, Filozofická fakulta, 2006. ISBN 80-7308-137-7.
[19] POP, Ivan. Dějiny Podkarpatské Rusi v datech. Libri, 2005. ISBN 80-7277-237-6.
[20] PONOMAR’OV, Anatolij. Etnografični grupi Ukrayinciv. [online] Polski portal edukacyjny. [cit. 1. 3. 2016]. Available: <http://www.interklasa.pl/…>.
[21] Ottův slovník naučný: Illustrovaná encyklopædie obecných vědomostí. Šestnáctý díl. Heslo Malorusové, s. 717. Praha: J. Otto, 1900.
[22] ŠATAVA, Leoš. Národnostní menšiny v Evropě: Encyklopedická příručka. Nakl. Ivo Železný, 1. vyd. Praha, 1994, s. 135–156. ISBN 80-7116-375-9.
[23] GUSTAVSSON, Sven, MARVAN, Jiří. Jihoslovanští Rusíni, jejich kultura a jazyk. Praha: Univerzita Karlova v Praze, 2006. ISBN 80-7308-137-7.
[24] OBŠIL, Jan. Dějiny národů slovanských. Nakl. A. Šaška, 1930, s. 24.
[25] SMIRNOV, Alexej Petrovič. Skytové. Panorama. 1980.
[26] Part of the Marmaros-Bukovyna Highlands. The Ukrainian section of the Hutsul Alps is located in the southern part of the Rakhiv District in the Zakarpattia region and is known as the Rakhiv Mountains.
[27] STADNIK, O. G. Ekonomična i social’na heohrafija Ukrajiny. 9 klas: Majstěr-klas. Ranok, 2009, p. 50. ISBN 978–966–672–742–1.
[28] A state entity that emerged after the fall of Kyivan Rus. Along with the Novgorod Republic and the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, the Halych-Volhynian Principality was the strongest eastern state entity in the 13th–14th centuries.
[29] Polish king from 1333 to 1370. He sought to complete the process of unifying Poland.
[30] A state entity of Eastern and Central Europe formed by the treaty between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569.
[31] NEJEDLÝ, Zdeněk. Moskevské stati. Svoboda, 1950, p. 177.
[32] Armed unit of the autonomous Subcarpathian Rus. The term ‚sich‘ originally comes from the Zaporizhian Cossacks, who served as administrative and military units from the 16th to the 18th centuries. The term ‚sich‘ is derived from the Ukrainian word ‚сікти‘ – to chop, to cut.
[33] In: Zakon5.rada.gov.ua. [online]. March 15, 2002. [cit. 2016-03-01]. Available at:
[34] JUNEK, Václav. Osudy českých zrádců. Petrklíč, 2010. ISBN 978-80-7229-236-3.
[35] PÁLENÍČEK, Ludvík, HÖNIG, Otakar, TÝML, Václav. Čítanka pro čtvrtý ročník. Státní pedagogické nakladatelství, 1966, p. 121.
[36] KUHUTJAK, M. Starožytnosti Hucul’ščyny. Džerela z etničnoji istoriji naselennja Ukrajins’kych Karpat. L’viv: Manuskript-L’viv, 2011.
[37] AŠKINAZI, Mojsej Jonovyč. Svit dyvnoji starovyny. Karpaty, 1969, p. 94.
[38] MARDER, A. P. Architektura: Korotkyj slovnyk-dovidnyk. Kiyiv: Budivel’nyk, 1995. ISBN 5-7705-0634-4.
[39] Freely translated from the original: „Тваринництво і робота з деревом та шкірою. Ткацтво. Це традиційні ремесла, які ще й зараз використовуються у побуті.“
[40] ŠUCHEVYČ, Volodymyr. Hucul’ščyna. L’viv, 1899.
[41] Freely translated from the original: „Для гуцула традиційно займатися різними ремеслами від дерева до каменю.“
[42] LAVRUK, Maria. 2005, pp. 41–43.
[43] PONOMARJOV, Anatolyj. Etnografični hrupy Ukrajinciv. In: Interklasa.pl. Polski portal edukacyjny. [online]. [cit. 2016-03-01]. Available at: http://www.interklasa.pl/…
[44] MANDYBURA, M. D. Polonyns’ke hospodarstvo Hucul’ščyny druhoji polovyny 19. st.–30. roky 20 st.: Istoryko-etnohrafičnyj narys. Kyjiv, Naukova dumka, 1978, p. 55.
[45] HOTAR, O. Narodne charčuvannja Ukrajinciv Karpat. Naukova dumka, 1979.
[46] MACIEVS’KIJ, I. V. Muzični instrumenty huculiv: Naukovo-populjarne vydannja. Vinnycja, Nova knyha, 2012, p. 24. ISBN 978-966-382-401-7.
[47] VYŠNIVS’KA, Dana. Symvolika rizdvjanych prykras dlja kimnaty. In: Ukrajins’ka pravda žyttja. [online]. 5. 1. 2014. [cit. 6. 3. 2016]. Available at: <http://life.pravda.com.ua/…>
[48] SYROKHMAN, Michajlo. Cerkvy Ukrajiny Zakarpattja. Vyd-vo „Ms“, 2000.
[49] Domašni promysly i remesla. [online]. Hutsulschyna.com. [cit. 6. 3. 2016]. Available at: <http://hutsulschyna.com/…>
[50] Freely translated from the original: „…вишита українська сорочка – це не просто одяг, це справжній оберіг.“ Oberih (oберіг) = an object attributed with supernatural powers to protect its owner from evil, guarding the soul from harm, mischief, and desire.
[51] Freely translated from the original: „Для мене то символ невмиручості українського народу загалом, поки була вишиванка, поки й пісня грала. То робочий одяг українького народу.“
Freely translated from the original: „Вишиванка це символ і гордість.“
[53] Freely translated from the original: „Я християнин. Без віри жити не можна.“
[54] TURKEVYČ, Vasyl‘. Vseukrajins’ka Mižnarodna Chrystyjans’ka Asambleja. Vydannja Ukrajins’koji Pravoslavnoji cerkvy Kyjivs’koho Patriarchatu, 1998, p. 70.
[55] Church union = the unification of two or more Christian churches into one.
[56] KOČAN, N. Uniats’ki cerkvy. Ljudyna i svit, 1992. In: Risu.org.ua. [online]. 26. 8. 2010. [cit. 2016-03-06]. Available at: <http://risu.org.ua/…>
[57] Freely translated from the original: „Віра тримає мене в житті. Мій син 9 місяців воював на Сході, якби не віра, я, мабуть, і не витримала би.“
[58] Freely translated from the original: „Святе Православіє є смислом життя людини і дороговказом.“
[59] BOHOMOLEC‘, O. Zamok – muzej Radomysl‘ na Šljachu Koroliv Via Regia.
[60] Chto taki huculy, abo p’jat samobutnich ukrajins’kych narodiv. In: Firtka.if.ua. Ahencija novyn. [online]. 13. 1. 2016. [cit. 16. 3. 2016]. Available at: <http://firtka.if.ua/…>
[61] KOKAISL, Petr. Geografie náboženství. Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze, 2015, p. 157. ISBN 978-80-213-2551-7.
[62] The so-called Great Fast.
[63] Freely translated from the original: „На Великдень нічого не роблять, ніяких робіт, аби не порушити весняного ладу, розмаю природи. Люди привічають одне одного, влаштовують гостини, ігри з Великодніми крашанками. Яйце – символ початку всього у світі.“ KONONENKO, A. A. Slov’ianskyi svit: iljustrovanyi slovnyk-dovidnyk mifolohichnykh uiavlenʹ, viruvanʹ, obriadiv, lehend ta ikhnikh vidlunʹ u folʹklori i piznishykh zvychaiakh ukraintsiv, brativ-slov’ian ta inshykh narodiv. Asotsiatsia dilovoho spivrobitnytstva „Ukrainsʹkyi mizhnarodnyi kulʹturnyi tsentr“, 2008.
[64] FUČÍKOVÁ, V., DOŠKOVÁ, K., MILENOVSKÁ, M., MONDRYK, R. Oslavy Vánoc pravoslavných věřících v ČR. Hospodářská a kulturní studia na Provozně ekonomické fakultě ČZU v Praze. [online]. 28. 8. 2014. Available at: <http://www.hks.re/wiki/pravoslavi14>
[65] MANDYBURA, M. D. Polonyns’ke hospodarstvo Hucul’ščyny druhoji polovyny 19. st.–30. roky 20 st.: Istoryko-etnohrafičnyj narys. Kyjiv, Naukova dumka, 1978.
[66] Traditional Hutsul musical instrument.
[67] MACIEVS’KIJ, I. V. 2012, p. 24.
[68] In: Ce Karpaty, Huculyky (Це Карпати, Гуцулики) Zvičayi Gucul’ščini. [online]. 21. 2. 2016. [cit. 6. 3. 2016]. Available at: <https://www.facebook.com/…>
[69] LOSJUK, Petro. Chrestomatija z hucul’ščynoznavstva. Pysanyj kamiň, 2001. ISBN 966-7325-64-4.
[70] Freely translated from the original: „Прощайте по перший, по другий і по третій раз.“
[71] SINITOVIČ, V. Teatral’na perlyna Hnata Chotkevyča. Verchovyna, 2010.
[72] Freely translated from the original: „Духовна і матеріальна культура.“
[73] Freely translated from the original: „Cтародавні звичаї та віра в Бога.“
[74] Freely translated from the original: „Мовний діалект, культура…“
[75] Freely translated from the original: „Одяг, який є відображенням традиційного способу господарюваня, а саме – вівчарства. Більшість елементів гуцульського одягу (вбері, як кажуть гуцули) зроблено з овечої вовни або хутра: кожухи і кептарі, запаски і штани-гачі, зимові каракулеві шапки і літні повстяні капелюхи, теплі високі шкарпетки-„капчури“.“
[76] Freely translated from the original: „Сила волі до життя, працьовитість.“
[77] Freely translated from the original: „Так, пишаюся. Тому, що ми, незважаючи на зовнішні чинники, загрози і тиск зберегли, напевно найбільше з усіх етнічних українських груп, власну ідентичність.“
[78] Freely translated from the original: „Якшо я гуцул то пишаюсья цим, але насамперед я українець!“
[79] Freely translated from the original: „Гуцул повинен народитись в горах і проживати в них своє життя. Може мандрувати світом, але місце постійного проживання повинно бути в горах. Багато гуцулів є чудовими музикантами, а майже є всі талановитими танцюристами народних танців та співаками гуцульських пісень. Гуцули обожнюють землю і вона є священною. Також люблять маржину і вміють з нею розмовляти, та дбають про неї, адже сказано, що все багаство гуцула в його маржині. Гуцули дуже релігійні, хоч часом християнство переплітається з язичництвом, але дух панує християнський. Гуцули гостинні та привітні, будь який гість, який зайшов навіть на подвір’я гуцула, буде запрошений до дому і почастований. Гуцули дуже хороші, але щоб, зрозуміти їх повністю, які вони, треба побувати на Гуцульщині і пожити з ними деякий час!“
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