DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.7160/KS.2024.220105
Author: Sanchita Bhattacharya
Address: Institute for Conflict Management, New Delhi, India
E-mail: sanchita.bhat83@gmail.com
Language: English
Issue: 1/2024 (22)
Page Range: 120-134
No. of Pages: 15
Keywords: Female Genital Mutilation, FGM, Dawoodi Bohra, Pakistan, Women’s health, Religious practices, Cultural traditions, Psychological effects, Legal frameworks.
Abstract: This paper examines the practice of female genital mutilation (FGM) among the Dawoodi Bohra community in Pakistan. FGM, a non-therapeutic alteration of the female genitalia, is examined through the lenses of religion, culture and health. The Dawoodi Bohra, predominantly based in Karachi, practice FGM as a religious and cultural rite, linking it to notions of purity and social acceptance. Despite global efforts to outlaw and eradicate FGM, it persists, underpinned by deeply held beliefs and the insular nature of the community. The physical and psychological effects of FGM are profound, leading to immediate and long-term complications such as severe pain, infection and psychological trauma. This paper discusses the impact of these practices on women’s health and rights, while critiquing the lack of an effective legal framework in Pakistan to combat FGM. In addressing this issue, the paper contributes to the broader discourse on gender-based violence and the rights of women and children in patriarchal societies.
Dr. Sanchita Bhattacharya is Research Fellow in New Delhi based Institute for Conflict Management. She has co-authored the book The Taliban Misrule in Afghanistan: Suicide Brigades, the IS-K Military Strength and its Suicide Vehicle Industry, along with Musa Khan Jalalzai. She works on terrorism and socio-political issues of Pakistan. She also has an avid interest in the Af-Pak region. Her articles and commentaries have been published in East Asia Forum, The Kabul Times, The Outlook, The Quint, etc. She has written research papers in national and international journals and also contributed chapters in various edited volumes.
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Introduction
The practice of mutilating genital organs of women is an ancient one, carried out in many communities around the world. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is a practice that harms and changes the external female genitals for non-medical reasons.[1] The roots of FGM are multifaceted and numerous reasons are given for its practice. In some parts of the world, FGM is seen as aesthetic and hygienic. Religion, tradition and culture are the most cited explanations for FGM’s continuation. Gender and sexuality are other reasons mentioned for practicing FGM.[2] This inhuman disfigurement was practiced in Sudanese and Nubian populations before the advent of Islam. The practice is also taking place in many African countries by non-Muslim populations.[3] According to the 2021 edition of the World Bank’s “Compendium of International and National Legal Frameworks on Female Genital Mutilation”, 84 countries in the world have domestic legislation that either definitely bans FGM or allows it to be prosecuted through other laws, such as the criminal or penal code, child protections laws, and violence against women laws or domestic violence laws. Penalties range from a minimum of six months to a maximum of life in prison. Many countries also include monetary fines as part of the penalty.[4] Yet, it is out of the domain of legal penalty in many countries, such as, Oman, the UAE, Pakistan, Iran, India, Malaysia, Somalia, South Africa, The Maldives, Russia, etc.
The United Nations conducted their earliest studies on these practices using an anthropological method, adopting the term “female circumcision”, which the World Health Organization (WHO) adopted as well. Nevertheless, many believed this term euthanized and “normalized” the practice, making it similar to generally accepted male circumcisions. In the mid-1970s, feminist activists emphasized the harmful consequences of this painful and crude tradition on young girls and women. Therefore, to recognize the damage done to normal, healthy tissue, they began using the term “mutilation” versus “circumcision.” Since the 1990s, “female genital mutilation” (FGM) has been widely accepted.[5]
It won’t be incorrect to say that FGM involves the intentional, non-therapeutic physical alteration of female genitalia. FGM has been in practice for thousands of years, but in the last 25 years or so, it has been the topic of rigorous efforts to lawfully forbid and eradicate the practice in many countries. An estimated 230 million girls and women alive today are believed to have been exposed to female genital mutilation; but the number of girls subjected to the practice are expected to increase because of the global population growth.[6]
FGM is practiced in many Islamic societies in the Middle East and Africa, leading both human rights and women’s and children’s rights organizations to raise mounting apprehension over it. At the same time, Muslim scholars from these areas have considered the efforts of such organizations as an attack on, what proponents of FGM consider, an Islamic tradition. Many Muslim scholars have issued fatwa (religious non-binding ruling) in support of FGM as an Islamic tradition. At the same time, some Muslim scholars have totally condemned this practice as entirely prohibited.[7]
Types of Female Genital Mutilation
The WHO describes FGM as ‘all procedures that intentionally alter or cause injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons’. WHO classifies FGM into the following four categories[8]:
- Type 1. Clitoridectomy is partial or total removal of the clitoris and/or the hood/prepuce. In some Muslim communities this type is also called Sunna.
- Type 2. Excision is partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora, with or without excision of the labia majora.
- Type 3. Infibulation is cutting of the labia minora and labia majora with the clitoris and narrowing of the vaginal orifice with creation of a covering seal. This type is known in some countries that practise it as Pharaonic type.
- Type 4 is all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes: for example, pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterisation.
FGM: Physical and psychological effects on women
Women’s health, both physical and psychological is a human rights issue and women’s empowerment cannot be disconnected from topics related to women’s health. Female genital mutilation increases the risks of immediate and long-term psychological, obstetric, genitourinary, sexual and reproductive health complications. Most importantly, there is no health benefit from FGM.[9] The age at which this practice is executed varies. In some cases, FGM is carried out on babies or teenagers, while in others, it is done when the female has matured. Female genital mutilation involves the planned, non-therapeutic physical alteration of female genital organs.
The cutting of female clitoris and labia is often done with crude and unsterile instruments, razor blades, knives, scalpels, scissors, and bits of glass and without anesthesia, by old-style practitioners who have little knowledge of female anatomy. In societies where infibulation (contraction of the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal) is performed, girls’ legs are frequently chained together for 10-14 days to restrain them and allow scar tissue to grow.[10] The cutting results in immediate harm. Bleeding (haemorrhage) occurs due to laceration or cutting of branches of the pudendal or clitoral arteries, which have high blood pressure, causing a strong flow of blood during and shortly after the cutting process. Other immediate difficulties include shock, genital tissue swelling, fever, infections, problems with urination (acute urinary retention and hesitancy), and delayed healing of cut and wound.[11] Every now and then, during the procedure of FGM the girls die due to medical complications.
Regrettably, FGM can lead to severe long-term complications in the urogenital and or rectovaginal tract. These comprise fistulas, excessive scarring, chronic pain, an increased frequency of infections (e.g., urinary tract infections, pelvic infections, and infections with sexually transmitted diseases), as well as the development of cysts or neuromas. Moreover, protracted and painful menstruation due to congestion of blood in the vagina and uterus or urinary retention as a result of extensive tightening of the vaginal entrance are recurrently seen. Besides, obstetric complications with increased risk of cut of the anal sphincter, as well as higher rates of episiotomy, caesarian section and resuscitation of the newborn, also prolonged labour causing formation of vesico- or rectovaginal defects in urinary and fecal incontinence are also widely observed by medical practitioners and health care workers.[12]
At the psychological level, FGM results in immediate and protracted psychological effects. The psychological effects include post-traumatic stress disorder, despair, anxiety disorders, and somatic (physical) complaints such as aches or pain with no organic reason.[13] The scar of FGM is not only physical, but also psychological. It is a life-long suffering for the woman. The sheer horror of the procedure stains the memory and it stays with them forever. There is no going back to normalcy, once it is done. Women who have experienced FGM may also be affected by an increased danger of severe depression, with reduced social functioning, feeling of worthlessness, guilt, and even suicidal thoughts. They also show symptoms of social withdrawal and uncommunicative or distrustful nature. Other psychological effects include emotional distance, flashbacks, sleep disorders, social isolation.[14]
Mental health outcomes profoundly manifest as long-term disability together with poor psychosocial behaviour pattern. There is also massive emotional and physical pain associated with the practice. The psychological frailties associated with FGM as well as the trauma that follows implies poor self-esteem, self-efficacy and confusion about ones gender and sexual identity.[15]
Women are subjected to shaming for their sexual organs in parochial families and society. They are often made feel bad about their body parts and resultantly, in many cases women are conditioned to go through the harrowing process of FGM to make them ‘clean’ and ‘marriageable’. They are induced with a sense of inferiority and insignificance, which persists till late age. The mental torture is not only limited to the post effect of FGM, but it starts from an early age and drags on till the woman dies.
FGM: Cultural and Religious obligation?
It is one of a pre-Islamic cultural custom that prevailed before in Arab African countries. Christian, Jews and Muslims who lived in African, Arab regions have practiced this ritual.[16] The lack of published literature on the Dawoodi Bohra community is evidence itself of an introspective, closed culture, resultantly, not much is in the open about FGM. Where FGM is a social convention (social norm), the social pressure to conform to what others do and have been doing, as well as the need to be acknowledged socially and the horror of being banned by the community, are strong impetuses to continue the practice.[17] FGM is undeniably considered a significant rite of passage that changes children into community members, at times defined as ‘cyclical rites’. Moreover, the Dawoodi Bohra have chosen to keep a low profile, out of the spotlight of the press in particular.[18]
This procedure is not clearly stated in the Quran. Within all four Islamic Sunni sects and Shia sects, hadiths mention and sanction FGM, Type I or Type IV, although FGM is not always described as obligatory. The continuance of the practice has been recognized in the Sunni Shafi’i sect, some of the Sunni Hanbali sect, and the Shi’a Ismaili Bohra sects. The Sunni Shafi’i school of Islam represents about 30 per cent of the world’s Muslims, located in the eastern horn of Africa, Yemen, Egypt, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Sunni Hanbali sect represents about 15 per cent of the world’s Muslims, residing in Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and UAE. The Shi’a Ismaili sect represents about 2 per cent of the world’s Muslims, in Pakistan, Iran, India and Lebanon.[19]
Noticeably, there is no unanimity among the fuqaha (Muslim jurists) regarding FGM. The advocates of FGM differ on the subject. Some regard it as obligatory, others consider it as a Sunnah (the traditions and practices of Prophet Muhammad), and still others treat it as mustahab (permissible) while some regard it as a source of reverence. There is even incongruity on the issue within the same school of thought. The preferred opinion of Maliki school of thought is that FGM is mustahab (the actor will be rewarded if he practices it but will not be condemned for not doing it). According to the Shafi’is, Hanbalis, and Sahnun of the Maliki school of thought, circumcision is obligatory for both boys and girls. However, jurists of the Hanafi school of thought (practiced in South and Central Asia and Turkey) are split on the issue. Some regard it as a Sunnah while others consider it as a source of respect or an honorable deed for a woman but not a legal obligation for her.[20]
However, the Arabic text to which Bohra refers to for justifying FGM is Da’a’im al-Islam, and it was written by Al’Qadi al-Nu’man who served Fatimid court during the 10th century in Egypt. The book Da’a’im al-Islam which he wrote, had the fundamental, essential and most important status of Fatimid jurisprudence. This work detailed lifestyle guidance and religious obligations and narrations by the Prophet Muhammad and other Islamic figures, including FGM.[21]
Furthermore, wife of Mohammed Burhanuddin, the 52nd Da’I of Dawoodi Bohra, Amatullah Burhanuddin wrote a book containing four volumes, elucidating the orthodox religious practices observed by their community. In the third volume of the book, she certified circumcision irrespective of gender, as the boys at the earliest of age and girls after seven.[22]
When it comes to subjugation of women, both religion and culture are used and abused to justify any category of crime. And in this case, even the womenfolk are in a participatory role to defend and sanctify FGM.
Dawoodi Bohra Community of Pakistan
Dawoodi Bohra Muslims trace their heritage to the Fatimi Imams of Egypt, direct descendants of Prophet Muhammad, through Imam Ali bin Abi Talib, son in law of the Prophet, and Fatima, daughter of the Prophet and wife of Imam Ali bin Abi Talib. The Dawoodi Bohras throughout the world are guided by their leader known as the al-Da’i al-Mutlaq (unrestricted missionary), who first operated from Yemen and then, for the last 450 years, from India. The present leader is the 53rd al-Da’i al-Mutlaq, His Holiness Dr Syedna Mufaddal Saifuddin. The Dawoodi Bohras follow the Fatimi Ismaili Tayyibi school of thought.[23]
Historically, the Ismailis successfully challenged the Abbasids -the Arab Sunni rulers, and succeeded, with the help of the Berber tribe, in founding their own state called the Fatimid state, in North Africa. Female circumcision was practiced in Africa before the advent of Islam. The Ismaili movement, from its inception was a proselytizing mission which had spread the network of its missionaries to countries like Persia, India, Central Asia, and Yemen.[24] Later in course of time, in the 11th century the Ismailis/Fatimid missionaries visited India to spread the Islamic teachings from Yemen. After 16th century Bohra’s al-Da’i al-Mutlaq shifted from Yemen to India.[25] Nevertheless, within the Bohra community, many scholars are of the opinion that an extremely important reason for FGM is the preservation of a separate Bohra identity that distinguished the community from other Muslim groups. The tradition also has cultural and social significance and is viewed by the community as integral to “being Bohra.”[26]
Bohras defined as the Shi’a Muslims of the Tayyibi Musta’li branch of the Isma’ilis mostly live in India and Karachi (in Pakistan) and practice FGM.[27] FGM as an invasive cultural procedure, practiced in the tight-knit community of Dawoodi Bohra Muslims of Pakistan in the name of religion.[28]
The Bohra Community in Pakistan, carries out FGM, and insists that it prevents girls from zina (adultery) and masturbation, as it curbs their sexual urges, which could lead to unlawful fornication. The Bohras are essentially headquartered in Mumbai, India, with affluent communities scattered all over the world. They number several hundred thousand. The community of some 35,000 in Karachi, Pakistan is one of the largest in the world. But there is a contradiction in this community. Bohra followers lead lifestyles that are astoundingly liberal in conservative Pakistan, making their support of FGM more startling.[29] In spite of the fact that the sect prides itself on being modern in terms of education, occupation and family planning, the Syedna (community leader) continues to exercise substantial control over his followers.[30] In India and Pakistan, the Bohras practice female cutting as a religious ritual.[31]
Through centuries and generations, women of the Bohra Community have removed what they call as “forbidden flesh”[32] from the body of girls. The girls were told they had an infection, or an insect, or something dirty inside, that needed to be removed or cut out. FGM is mostly performed by mullanis, women who have a semi-religious standing, or by dais or midwives, or by any woman with some experience.[33] In some cases the grandmothers or aged female relatives also get involved.
As is prevalent, in all patriarchal societies, the element of shame has been attached to FGM. The girls are ordered to never speak of it again. It is also an unwritten understanding that anything involving their genitals should stay as a secret. This malicious custom and ritual is passed on from one generation to the next causing inter-generational trauma among the female section of this community.
Bohras regularly perform Type 1, therefore “clitoridectomy”, on girls as young as seven-years-old. As per one study by the non-government organisation in Karachi, Sahiyo, an estimated 80 per cent of women within the Dawoodi Bohra community have undergone female genital mutilation. They [these communities] refer to the practice as Khatna or Khafd/Khafz, involving shortening the clitoral hood or removing the tip of the clitoris. Disturbingly, this heinous procedure is performed without anesthesia on pre-pubescent girls. The mullanis or dais, have no medical background and little regard for hygiene- taharat.[34] There is no religious or traditional reason behind selection of girls aged seven for FGM. However, at this age, the girl is considered naadaan (innocent) and naasamajh (not capable of understanding). She is considered not capable of understanding what is being done to her.[35]
In recent years, due to an increase in strict religious obedience by the Bohras, the practice of FGM has amplified. Unless the Bohra chief/leader issues a decree to prohibit the act, the practice will remain firmly rooted in the people’s culture and will continue to be practiced.[36] What appears in this particular situation is an intricate depiction regarding the crossroad of culture, religion, and modernity, in which a woman is the sole victim.
Scenario in Pakistan
Religion and women’s bodies are delicate topics in a patriarchal society, like Pakistan. Pakistan’s history with women has long been marked by an urge to morally police their bodies. The discriminatory practices, and normalization of violence against women within the social paradigm of Pakistan amplifies danger for the female population.
Women in Pakistan live in a world structured by strict codes of family ties, religion and tribal customs. In recent years, pervasive repression and violence, often perpetrated with impunity, have literally pushed women back into their homes for fear of reprisals. There are many customary practices found throughout Pakistan that result in harmful outcomes for women. These include dowry deaths, honour killings, acid attacks, exchanging women in marriage with no consideration for their consent, forced marriages, forced religious conversions, etc.[37] The practice of FGM is also very much a form of violence against women and girls.
Such acts of violence are committed with the aim of restoring or shielding the honour of oneself, family, or community. Due to social norms that undervalue women as individuals and human beings, honour violence is mostly though not completely, committed against women and girls. It is committed as a punishment and redemption for the perceived shame or disgrace a woman has brought upon her family or community.[38]
Correspondingly, absence of awareness and cultural conditioning are the factors that create a dangerous environment for young girls and women as they experience honour killing, acid attacks, intimate partner violence, rape, forced marriages and FGM. FGM remains a widely unknown and overlooked issue within Pakistan society, or rather conveniently avoided. The reality of this procedure and the hygiene they observe remain in the dark. There might be other victims who suffered the same illness which would have remained unreported.
Around 100,000 females go through circumcision in Bohra Muslims per annum in Pakistan. The society lacks knowledge about the worst results of FGM and follows this procedure dutifully. Ignorance of women about their fundamental rights is the reason behind the prejudice and cruelty women have been suffering for a long time.[39]
In Pakistan, there are no legal and administrative measures to prevent practices of FGM. There is no law that positions towards FGM, it is mostly because this inhuman practice at the first place, is not recognized and reported, and secondly, it is because the issue is complex, sensitive and silently practiced by a small religious community. In 2006, the federal government of Pakistan had introduced the National Plan of Action for Children; the goal number nine of the Plan was to end harmful traditions or customary practices, such as early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation, by 2010. Under the goal, strategies/actions included: growing education facilities particularly for girls; effective application of existing laws; and alertness raising especially educating the common people of damaging consequences of early marriages and capacity building measures.[40] But, in reality FGM, along with other social evils are very much present and in continuance in Pakistan.
Pakistan seemingly needs decades to catch up and organize national action on FGM. But, for that FGM needs to be considered as an extreme form of abuse or as an inhuman practice, which hardly would happen. Community leaders and even women maintain silence and secrecy. FGM is a non-negotiable subject for the practitioners and a matter of shame for the victims. Consequently, a country entrenched in Islam and patriarchy hardly recognize such brutal act as a crime against women.
Conclusion
Female genital mutilation should be discussed with other forms of gender violence in Pakistan, such as honour killings, acid assaults, rape, and kidnapping. It is important to raise awareness on this issue. On the other hand, discussing into the details of this ritual or into any victim’s personal experiences is forbidden. Even the victims are constrained to discuss it among themselves. This is no doubt a very well-preserved secret in Pakistan. Resultantly, Pakistan is at the risk of being left behind in attaining one of the United Nations‘ sustainable development goals, the elimination of female genital cutting by 2030.
Pakistan ranks 142nd out of 146 countries in the Global Gender Gap Report of 2023 by the World Economic Forum. It is often criticized by human rights activists for its high rates of violence against women. Lately, there has been more activism in Pakistan against honour killing, the mistreatment of transgenders and child labour. Protests and community engagement make these issues more noticeable and put pressure on the government to answer. Sadly, this is not the case with FGM. To curb the practice in Pakistan, it must be openly addressed and understood.[41]
If FGM is to end, changing the attitude of men and members of the particular community is essential. A woman should not be treated as property of the male relatives of her family, community and religion. The continuation of this barbaric tradition is a direct denial of woman as a living being. She is mistreated as a device to produce babies and satisfy the men; therefore, her biological and psychological wellbeing is never considered. Moreover, the additional elements of religion and culture are disempowering women greatly. They keep it low and hardly voice the pain, humiliation, suffering out of fear of severe retribution.
[1] WULFES, Nene et. al., ‘Cognitive–Emotional Aspects of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in the Context of Female Genital Mutilation’, Int J Environ Res Public Health, Vol. 19, No. 9 (2022), DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19094993.
[2] FARAH, Fatuma. ‘What is female genital mutilation and what is it doing in education?’ Research in Teacher Education, Vol. 6, No. 2 (2016), pp. 34-37. DOI: 10.15123/PUB.5645
[3] MUNIR, Muhammad. ‘Dissecting the Claims of Legitimization for the Ritual of Female Circumcision or Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)’, International Review of Law, Vol. 6, DOI: 10.5339/irl.2014.6
[4] UNFPA. Female genital mutilation (FGM) frequently asked questions. March, 2024. Available online: https://www.unfpa.org/resources/female-genital-mutilation-fgm-frequently-asked-questions
[5] LLAMAS, Jewel. Female Circumcision: The History, the Current Prevalence and the Approach to a Patient. April, 2017. Available online: https://med.virginia.edu/family-medicine/wp-content/uploads/sites/285/2017/01/Jewel-Llamas-Paper-KT3.pdf
[6] UNFPA. op. cit.
[7] MUNIR, Muhammad. op. cit.
[8] WHO. Types of female genital mutilation. Available online: https://www.who.int/teams/sexual-and-reproductive-health-and-research-(srh)/areas-of-work/female-genital-mutilation/types-of-female-genital-mutilation
[9] UNFPA. op. cit.
[10] UNFPA. op. cit.
[11] KIMANI, Samuel, MUTESHI, Jacinta. Health Impacts of FGM/C: A Synthesis of the Evidence. Population Council. October, 2016. Available online: http://www.popcouncil.org/EvidencetoEndFGM-C.
[12] WULFES, Nene et. al, op. cit.
[13] UNFPA. op. cit.
[14] CHUNG, Serene. The Psychological Effects of Female Genital Mutilation. May, 2016. Available online: https://www.fgmcri.org/blog/the-psychological-effects-of-female-genital-mutilation-research-blog-by-serene-chung/
[15] ESHO, Tammary and KUMAR, Manasi. ‘Mental and sexual health outcomes associated with FGM/C in Africa: a systematic narrative synthesis’, Review, Vol. 56, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101813
[16] ALMAS, Najia and SABAHAT, Safia. Practice of FGM/FGC as Customary/Cultural Ritual in a Particular Community in Pakistan, November, 2022. Available online: https://mc-caddogap.com/wp-content/uploads/Paper-46-of-vol-8-issue-3.pdf
[17] WHO. Female genital mutilation. February 2024. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation
[18] KING, Sadie and PARRY-CROOKE Georgie. Towards an understanding of the current debates on the Dawoodi Bohra tradition of Female Genital Cutting: A synthesis of key issues. August 2018. Available online: https://www.tavinstitute.org/news/dawoodi-bohra-tradition-of-female-genital-cutting
[19] BOOTWALA, Yasmin. ‘A Review of Female Genital Cutting in the Dawoodi Bohra Community: Part 3—the Historical, Anthropological and Religious Underpinnings of FGC in the Dawoodi Bohras’, Current Sexual Health Reports, Vol. 11, No. 3 (2019), pp. 228-235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11930-019-00214-x
[20] MUNIR, Muhammad. op. cit.
[21] BOOTWALA, Yasin. op. cit.
[22] ALMAS, Najia and SABAHAT, Safia. op. cit.
[23] THE DAWOODI BOHRAS. About the Dawoodi Bohras. Available online: https://www.thedawoodibohras.com/about-the-bohras/
[24] GHADIALLY, Rehana. All for “Izzat” The Practice of Female Circumcision among Bohra Muslims in India. 1994. Available online: https://sahiyo.org/images/D16.pdf
[25] ALMAS, Najia and SABAHAT, Safia. op. cit.
[26] KHAN, Anika et.al. ‘Demystifying the practice of khafd in the Dawoodi Bohra community: A commentary on the WeSpeakOut report from India’, Indian Journal of Medical Ethics, Vol. 4, No. 1(2019), pp. 65-70. DOI: 10.20529/IJME.2018.075.
[27] MUNIR, Muhammad. et. al.
[28] ALMAS, Najia and SABAHAT, Safia. op. cit.
[29] HADID, Diaa. A Secretive Sect Opens A Debate On Female Genital Mutilation. February, 2018. Available online: https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/02/28/589173639/a-secretive-sect-opens-a-debate-on-female-genital-mutilation
[30] GHADIALLY, Rehana. op. cit.
[31] KHAN op. cit.
[32] OMILABU, Temi. Massachusetts Criminalizes Female Genital Mutilation. January, 2021. Available online: https://sites.bu.edu/dome/category/health-law/
[33] GHADIALLY, Rehana. op. cit.
[34] ZAHID, Uswa. An unspoken abuse: Time to end female genital mutilation in Pakistan. April, 2022. Available online: https://www.geo.tv/latest/413481-an-unspoken-abuse-time-to-end-female-genital-mutilation-in-pakistan
[35] GHADIALLY, Rehana. op. cit.
[36] CHOHAN, Aneka. Female genital mutilation in Pakistan, and beyond. August, 2011. Available online: https://tribune.com.pk/article/7523/female-genital-mutilation-in-pakistan-and-beyond
[37] BHATTACHARYA, Sanchita. ‘Violence on Women An ‘Acceptable’ Assertion in Pakistan’, World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues, Vol 24, No. 2, pp 142-158
[38] SELBY, Daniele. Everything You Should Know About Honor-Based Violence. July 2016. Available online: https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/honor-based-violence-killings-women-girls-pakistan/
[39] PAKISTAN TODAY. Are Women still under suppression? October 2022. Available online: https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2022/10/22/are-women-still-under-suppression/
[40] KHOSO, A. The practice of female genital mutilation (FGM) in Pakistan. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights: Institute for Social Justice (ISJ) Pakistan, 2014.
[41] SAYYED, Huda. FGC: Taboo Hindering Progress in Pakistan. September, 2023. Available online: https://www.miragenews.com/fgc-taboo-hindering-progress-in-pakistan-1083180/
References
ALMAS, Najia and SABAHAT, Safia. Practice of FGM/FGC as Customary/Cultural Ritual in a Particular Community in Pakistan, November, 2022. Available online: https://mc-caddogap.com/wp-content/uploads/Paper-46-of-vol-8-issue-3.pdf
BHATTACHARYA, Sanchita. ‘Violence on Women An ‘Acceptable’ Assertion in Pakistan’, World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues, Vol 24, No. 2, pp 142-158
BOOTWALA, Yasmin. ‘A Review of Female Genital Cutting in the Dawoodi Bohra Community: Part 3—the Historical, Anthropological and Religious Underpinnings of FGC in the Dawoodi Bohras’, Current Sexual Health Reports, Vol. 11, No. 3 (2019), pp. 228-235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11930-019-00214-x
ESHO, Tammary and KUMAR, Manasi. ‘Mental and sexual health outcomes associated with FGM/C in Africa: a systematic narrative synthesis’, Review, Vol. 56, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101813.
FARAH, Fatuma. ‘What is female genital mutilation and what is it doing in education?’ Research in Teacher Education, Vol. 6, No. 2 (2016), pp. 34-37. http://DOI:10.15123/PUB.5645
GHADIALLY, Rehana. All for “Izzat” The Practice of Female Circumcision among Bohra Muslims in India. 1994. Available online: https://sahiyo.org/images/D16.pdf
HADID, Diaa. A Secretive Sect Opens A Debate On Female Genital Mutilation. February, 2018. Available online: https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/02/28/589173639/a-secretive-sect-opens-a-debate-on-female-genital-mutilation
CHOHAN, Aneka. Female genital mutilation in Pakistan, and beyond. August, 2011. Available online: https://tribune.com.pk/article/7523/female-genital-mutilation-in-pakistan-and-beyond
CHUNG, Serene. The Psychological Effects of Female Genital Mutilation. May, 2016. Available online: https://www.fgmcri.org/blog/the-psychological-effects-of-female-genital-mutilation-research-blog-by-serene-chung/
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